ALMANAC · Field Instrument 007

Section 1A Electrical & Electronics

Resistor Color Bands

Decode 4, 5, and 6-band axial resistors. Reverse-encode from a target value and tolerance.

Decode · Pick BandsFIG. 1A-1

—

Value

Tolerance—

Temp coef—

Find this part:

Reverse · Enter ValueFIG. 1A-2

Resistance

Tolerance

Temp Coef (6-band only)

—

Band Sequence

Find this part:

Color Reference

Section 1B Electrical & Electronics

SMD Resistor Codes

Decode 3-digit, 4-digit precision, R-notation, and EIA-96 surface-mount resistor codes. Format auto-detected.

DecoderFIG. 1B-1

—

enter a code

Multiplier—

Tolerance—

Find this part:

Supported FormatsTAB. 1B-1

Code	Format	Example
473	3-digit	47 × 10³ = 47 kΩ
4702	4-digit (1%)	470 × 10² = 47 kΩ
4R7	R-notation	4.7 Ω
R47	R-notation	0.47 Ω
01A	EIA-96	100 × 1 = 100 Ω
68C	EIA-96	499 × 100 = 49.9 kΩ

EIA-96 letter multipliers: Z=0.001, Y/R=0.01, X/S=0.1, A=1, B/H=10, C=100, D=1k, E=10k, F=100k.

EIA-96 Lookup TableTAB. 1B-2

Code	Value	Code	Value	Code	Value	Code	Value

Section 1C Electrical & Electronics

Pinouts

Microcontrollers, ICs, and connectors. The ones you actually reach for at the bench.

Select Device

Section 1D Electrical & Electronics

Wire & Ampacity

AWG sizing, metric equivalents, current capacity, and DC resistance. With voltage drop calculator.

AWG Reference TableTAB. 1D-1

AWG	mm²	⌀ (mm)	Chassis (A)	Power (A)	Ω / 1000 ft	Ω / km

Chassis wiring assumes free-air, single conductor. Power transmission assumes 700 circular mils per amp, conservative for long runs and bundled conductors. Derate for ambient temperature and bundling.

Voltage Drop CalculatorFIG. 1D-1

AWG

Current (A)

Length one-way (ft)

Source voltage

Voltage Drop—

% of Source—

Voltage at Load—

Power Dissipated in Wire—

NEC Ampacity (Table 310.16 · Copper)TAB. 1D-2

Allowable ampacity for not more than three current-carrying conductors in raceway, cable, or earth. Base condition: 30°C / 86°F ambient. Apply correction factors below for other conditions.

AWG / kcmil	60°C (TW, UF)	75°C (THW, THWN)	90°C (THHN, XHHW-2)

NEC 240.4(D): branch-circuit overcurrent protection limits 14 AWG to 15A, 12 AWG to 20A, 10 AWG to 30A regardless of the column value. Higher-temp columns are used for derating, not for raising the breaker.

Ampacity Correction CalculatorTOOL 1D-2

Conductor

Insulation Temp Rating

Ambient Temperature

Current-Carrying Conductors

Base Ampacity (Table 310.16)—

Ambient Correction Factor—

Bundling Adjustment Factor—

Corrected Ampacity—

240.4(D) Overcurrent Limit—

This is a working reference, not an inspection-grade calculation. Confirm against the latest NEC and your AHJ before doing actual electrical work.

Section 2A Mechanical

Tap & Drill

Drill sizes for tapping at 75% thread engagement, standard practice. Imperial and metric.

Filter

System

Thread	Pitch / TPI	Tap Drill	Decimal in	Metric mm	Clearance

Clearance drill = close fit for screw passage. For free fit, go one step up.

Counterbore for Socket-Head Cap Screws (SHCS)TAB. 2A-2

Screw	CB Dia (in)	CB Depth (in)	Clear Dia (in)	Notes

Counterbore depth = head height + 0.005-0.020" recess for the screw head to sit flush or slightly below. Clear dia is for the screw shank pass-through.

Counterbore for Button-Head Cap Screws (BHCS)TAB. 2A-3

Screw	CB Dia (in)	CB Depth (in)	Clear Dia (in)

Button heads have a domed top. Counterbore can recess the flange or leave the dome proud — depends on the design.

Countersink for Flat-Head ScrewsTAB. 2A-4

Screw	82° CS Dia (in)	90° CS Dia (in)	100° CS Dia (in)	Notes

82° is the inch standard (UNC / UNF), 90° is metric DIN 7991. 100° appears on some aerospace fasteners.

Reamer Prep SizesTAB. 2A-5

Reamer Size	Hand Reamer Drill	Machine Reamer Drill

Leave material for the reamer: hand reaming wants 0.003-0.005" undersize; machine reaming on rigid setups wants 0.005-0.015" depending on diameter. Hard materials want less stock.

Dowel Pin Press-Fit HolesTAB. 2A-6

Dowel Dia	Press-Fit Hole	Slip-Fit Hole	Notes

Press-fit hole is undersized for permanent or semi-permanent retention. Slip-fit hole is on the same nominal size for jig and fixture alignment.

Section 2B Mechanical

Feeds & Speeds

Starting points for milling and drilling. Always verify on scrap before committing to the part.

InputsFIG. 2B-1

Material

Tool Material

Diameter

Flutes

Starting ParametersTAB. 2B-1

SFM—

Spindle Speed—

Chip Load / Flute—

Feed Rate—

Recommended DOC—

SFM Reference (Mill / Drill)TAB. 2B-2

Material	HSS SFM	Carbide SFM	Notes

Section 3A Software

Number Bases

Convert between decimal, hexadecimal, binary, and octal. Bit-level view with click-to-toggle. ASCII lookup for printable range.

Input

Base

Bit Width

ConversionTAB. 3A-1

Decimal

—

Hex

—

Binary

—

Octal

—

Bit Map Click to toggle · MSB on left

ASCII

—

Signed (two's comp.)

—

Set Bits

—

Accepts unprefixed input matching the selected base. Hex accepts 0x, binary accepts 0b, octal accepts 0o regardless of selection.

Section 3B Software

ASCII & Unicode

Standard ASCII (0-127), extended Latin-1 (128-255), with control character names. Plus arbitrary Unicode code point lookup with UTF-8 byte breakdown.

Filter

Range

Unicode Code Point LookupTOOL 3B-1

Code Point (hex)

Accepts 2603, 0x2603, or U+2603.

Character—

Code Point—

UTF-8 bytes—

HTML Entity—

JS Escape—

Section 3C Software

HTTP Status Codes

Standard HTTP response codes with categories and brief descriptions.

Filter

Section 3D Software

Regex Cheatsheet & Tester

Reference card for regular expression syntax, plus a live tester using JavaScript's RegExp engine.

Live TesterTOOL 3D-1

Pattern

Flags

Test Text

enter a pattern

Section 3E Software

Epoch & ISO 8601

Convert between Unix epoch (seconds or milliseconds), ISO 8601 strings, and human-readable dates.

Now (epoch)—

Now (ISO)—

InputTOOL 3E-1

Time Value

Accepts:
• 10-digit numbers as epoch seconds
• 13-digit numbers as epoch milliseconds
• ISO 8601: 2026-06-03T14:30:00Z
• Date strings: June 3 2026

ConversionTAB. 3E-1

Epoch (s)—

Epoch (ms)—

ISO 8601 UTC—

ISO 8601 Local—

RFC 2822 / HTTP—

Relative—

Section 3F Software

URL · HTML · Base64

Encode and decode for the three encodings you need most in a browser. Input text or encoded text in either side; the other updates.

Source Text

URL Encoding (percent-encoding)TOOL 3F-1

Encoded

Decoded

HTML EntitiesTOOL 3F-2

Encoded

Decoded

Base64TOOL 3F-3

Encoded

Decoded

Section 3G Software

Color Converter

Convert between hex, RGB, HSL, and HSV. WCAG contrast ratio for foreground / background pairings.

Color LookupTOOL 3G-1

Hex—

RGB—

HSL—

HSV—

WCAG ContrastTOOL 3G-2

Foreground

Background

Contrast Ratio—

Sample Heading

The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog. 1234567890.

Section 3H Software

CRC & Checksum

Compute common CRCs and SHA hashes for text or hex-byte input. Useful for protocol debugging, firmware verification, and the Kryptos K4 sort of work.

Input

Input Mode

Hex mode accepts 48 65 6c, 0x48656C, or 48656c.

Input Length

—

CRC-8 (poly 0x07)

—

CRC-16 CCITT (0x1021)

—

CRC-16 Modbus

—

CRC-32 (IEEE)

—

SHA-1

—

SHA-256

—

SHA-512

—

MD5 is not included; browsers don't expose it via Web Crypto. SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-512 come from crypto.subtle.

Section 1E Electrical & Electronics

Electrical Formulas

Ohm's Law solver, reactance and resonance, decibel conversions, time constants, voltage divider.

Ohm's Law & PowerTOOL 1E-1

Enter any two values, the other two compute. Clear a field to re-solve.

Voltage (V)

Current (A)

Resistance (Ω)

Power (W)

V—

I—

R—

P—

Reactance & ResonanceTOOL 1E-2

Frequency

Inductance

Capacitance

X_L (inductive)—

X_C (capacitive)—

Resonance f_r—

Q (if R = 1Ω)—

Decibel ConverterTOOL 1E-3

Linear Ratio

Power (mW)

Voltage (V)

dB Input → linear

dB (power, 10·log)—

dB (voltage, 20·log)—

dBm (re 1 mW)—

dBV (re 1 V)—

dBu (re 0.775 V)—

dB → power ratio (10^(dB/10))—

dB → voltage ratio (10^(dB/20))—

Time Constants & DividerTOOL 1E-4

Resistance (Ω)

Capacitance (µF)

Inductance (mH)

RC τ (63.2% charge)—

RC 5τ (~99% settled)—

RL τ (L/R)—

Voltage Divider

V_in

R1 (Ω)

R2 (Ω)

R_load (Ω, opt.)

V_out (unloaded)—

V_out (with load)—

Current through divider—

Battery & Power BudgetTOOL 1E-5

Capacity (mAh)

Nominal Voltage (V)

Average Draw (mA)

Usable Efficiency (%)

Efficiency accounts for DC-DC losses, depth-of-discharge limits, and the fact that you rarely get 100% of label capacity. 80% is a reasonable default for LiPo+boost regulator; drop to 60-70% for cold operation or aged cells.

Total Energy (Wh)—

Usable Energy—

Average Power—

Runtime—

In days · weeks—

Most real designs care about duty cycle. If your device spends 99% of the time in deep sleep at 50 µA and 1% awake at 100 mA, the effective average is (0.99 × 0.05) + (0.01 × 100) ≈ 1.05 mA, not 100 mA.

Crystal & Clock LoadingTOOL 1E-6

Crystal C_L (pF)

Stray Capacitance (pF)

Frequency (MHz)

ESR (Ω, optional)

Crystal datasheet gives a specified C_L (load capacitance). For symmetric Pierce oscillators with two equal loading caps C1 = C2: C_L = (C1·C2)/(C1+C2) + C_stray. Solve for C: C1 = C2 = 2·(C_L − C_stray). Typical stray is 2-5 pF (pin + trace + IC).

Required C1 = C2—

Standard E12 closest—

Effective C_L (with E12)—

Frequency Pull (ppm)—

Gain Margin (rough)—

Frequency pull estimate uses Δf/f ≈ −C0·ΔC_L / (2·(C0 + C_L)²) with C0 ≈ 1 pF typical. For tight-tolerance clocks (RTC, USB host), use trimmable caps or match to your specific crystal lot.

Section 1F Electrical & Electronics

RF Tools

Wavelength and frequency, antenna lengths, VSWR converter, free-space path loss, ISM and amateur band reference.

Frequency ↔ WavelengthTOOL 1F-1

Frequency

Velocity Factor

λ (full wave)—

λ/2—

λ/4—

5λ/8—

Antenna LengthTOOL 1F-2

Quarter-wave whip and half-wave dipole with 0.95 end-effect correction. For a real build, plan to trim a touch longer and tune down.

1/4 wave whip (×0.95)—

1/2 wave dipole (×0.95)—

Full wave loop—

J-pole radiator (3/4 λ)—

VSWR · Return Loss · ΓTOOL 1F-3

Enter any one value; the others compute.

VSWR (≥1)

Return Loss (dB)

|Γ| reflection coef.

VSWR—

Return Loss—

|Γ|—

Mismatch Loss—

% Power Reflected—

Free-Space Path LossTOOL 1F-4

Frequency (MHz)

Distance

FSPL—

Friis equation20·log(d) + 20·log(f) + 32.45

Smith Chart HelperTOOL 1F-5

Z₀ reference (Ω)

R (real part, Ω)

X (reactance, Ω)

Positive X = inductive, negative X = capacitive. Output point plotted on the normalized chart; the dashed yellow ring is the constant-VSWR locus through your point.

Normalized z—

Γ—

|Γ|—

∠Γ—

VSWR—

Return Loss—

|Z|—

L-Network Matching SynthesisTOOL 1F-6

Frequency (MHz)

Source Z (real, Ω)

Load R (real part, Ω)

Load X (reactance, Ω)

L-network matches a real source impedance to a complex load via one series + one shunt element. Two configurations: low-pass (series L, shunt C) and high-pass (series C, shunt L). Series element goes on the lower-resistance side.

Q factor—

Bandwidth (3 dB)—

Topology—

Low-Pass L-Network

Series L—

Shunt C—

High-Pass L-Network

Series C—

Shunt L—

Complex loads are handled by absorbing X_L into the series element. Component values shown assume an ideal lossless network. Real-world: derate Q for component loss (typical inductor Q at HF ≈ 50-150, ceramic capacitor Q ≈ 200-1000).

Band Reference (ISM, License-Free, Amateur)TAB. 1F-1

Band	Frequency	Wavelength	Region	Common Use

Verify against your regional regulator (FCC in US, ETSI / national agencies in EU, etc.) before deploying. Power and duty-cycle limits vary.

Section 2C Mechanical

Laser Cutter Settings

Machine reference for the xTool family on the Mountain Maryland bench, plus starting parameters by material and operation.

Machine ReferenceTAB. 2C-1

Filter

Machine

Material	Operation	Machine	Power %	Speed (mm/s)	Passes	Notes

All values are conservative starting points based on community references and public datasheets. Test on scrap. Focus height, air assist, lens, and material moisture content all affect results. Treat anything published here as a v0 baseline to refine against your machine.

Section 1G Electrical & Electronics

Breadboard & Stripboard

Layout conventions for solderless breadboards and Vero-style stripboards, plus the pitch reference you reach for whenever a footprint isn't where you expected.

Standard Solderless Breadboard TopologyFIG. 1G-1

Standard half-board layout. Power rails run horizontally; component columns run vertically (5 ties on each side of the center channel). The center channel is for DIP packages straddling rows.

Stripboard (Vero) TopologyFIG. 1G-2

Continuous copper tracks along each row with holes at 0.1″ pitch. Cut tracks between holes with a spot-face cutter to isolate sections. Components mount on the non-copper side.

Connector & Footprint Pitch ReferenceTAB. 1G-1

Pitch	Imperial	Common Use

Section 2D Mechanical

3D Printer Settings

FDM filament parameters and resin exposure starting points. Treat as v0 baselines; calibrate against your specific printer, hotend, lens, and resin batch.

FDM Filament ReferenceTAB. 2D-1

Difficulty colors: ■ Easy · ■ Medium · ■ Hard · ■ Expert (enclosure + hardened nozzle)

Resin (MSLA / DLP / SLA) ReferenceTAB. 2D-2

Exposure values typical for 8K monochrome LCD printers at 50 µm layer height. Adjust ±0.5s for thinner/thicker layers and printer-specific LCD power.

Section 2E Mechanical

GD&T Quick Reference

Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing symbols per ASME Y14.5, grouped by type. Each card shows the symbol, name, characteristic family, and whether a datum is required.

Filter

Family

Material Condition & Other ModifiersTAB. 2E-1

Feature Control Frame AnatomyFIG. 2E-1

        | ⌖ | Ø 0.25 | Ⓜ | A | B | C |
      

⌖ · characteristic (here: position)
Ø 0.25 · tolerance value (diameter zone, 0.25 units)
Ⓜ · material condition modifier (MMC)
A B C · primary, secondary, tertiary datum references

Section 3I Software

Bill of Materials Calculator

Editable parts list with running cost. Add rows, set tax rate and shipping, watch the grand total update live. Export the working list as CSV. Data is session-only; refreshing the page clears it.

Part / Description	Qty	Unit Cost	Line Total	Notes

Tax Rate (%)

Shipping ($)

Currency Label

Subtotal$0.00

Tax$0.00

Shipping$0.00

Grand Total$0.00

Section 3J Software

Keyboard Shortcuts

Working reference for the apps you reach for the most. Defaults shown; verify against your installed version's settings.

Application

Filter

Section 1H Electrical & Electronics

Thermal Calculator

Junction temperature estimation for semiconductors and heatsink sizing. Compute T_j = T_a + P · Σθ, or solve backward for the heatsink θ_sa you need.

Junction TemperatureTOOL 1H-1

Power Dissipated (W)

Ambient (°C)

Max T_j (°C)

θ_jc (junction-case, °C/W)

θ_cs (case-sink, °C/W)

θ_sa (sink-ambient, °C/W)

Set θ_cs to 0 and θ_sa to your package's θ_ja for "no heatsink" cases. Standard junction-to-ambient datasheet values use this convention.

0°C 50°C 100°C 150°C 200°C

Total Thermal Resistance—

Temperature Rise (ΔT)—

Junction Temperature—

Margin to T_j max—

Status—

Heatsink Sizing (Reverse)TOOL 1H-2

Given power, ambient, max junction temp, θ_jc, and θ_cs, find the largest acceptable θ_sa. Lower θ_sa = bigger / better heatsink.

Required Σθ (max)—

Required θ_sa (max)—

Heatsink Category—

Typical θ_ja ReferenceTAB. 1H-1

Package	θ_ja (°C/W)	Notes

Heatsink θ_sa CategoriesTAB. 1H-2

Heatsink Type	Natural Convection	Forced Air (fan)

Forced air typically improves θ_sa by 2-4× over natural convection. Real performance depends on airflow direction, fin orientation, mounting torque, and surface finish (anodized fins radiate better than bare aluminum at high T).

Section 1I Electrical & Electronics

I²C Bus Planner

Plan your I²C chain. Add each device with its 7-bit address, see conflicts immediately, reference common sensor addresses to identify what's pinging back on a scan.

Add a DeviceTOOL 1I-1

Device / Sensor

Address (hex)

Accepts 0x76, 76 (interpreted as hex), or 0b1110110 (binary). Standard 7-bit range: 0x08 to 0x77. Addresses 0x00-0x07 and 0x78-0x7F are reserved.

Devices On BusTAB. 1I-1

Address Space Map (7-bit, 0x00 - 0x7F)FIG. 1I-1

Each cell = one 7-bit address. Yellow = in use; red = conflict (multiple devices); gray = reserved by the spec.

Common I²C Device AddressesTAB. 1I-2

Address(es)	Devices / Sensors

Many devices have 2-8 selectable addresses via ADDR pins. The first column shows the configurable range.

Section 1J Electrical & Electronics

Op-Amp Configurations

Standard op-amp topologies with formulas, schematics, and live calculations. Pick a topology, plug in resistor and capacitor values, see gain or cutoff frequency immediately.

Topology ReferenceTAB. 1J-1

Topology	Transfer Function	Input Z	Notes

All formulas assume ideal op-amps: infinite gain, infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, infinite bandwidth. Real devices have GBW (gain-bandwidth product) limits, slew rate caps, and non-zero input bias currents. Pick devices with ≥10× the bandwidth you need.

Section 1K Electrical & Electronics

MOSFET / BJT Selection Helper

Given operating parameters, compute required device ratings and search a reference of common parts. Selection guidance with reasonable safety margins; verify against datasheets for your actual application.

Selection CalculatorTOOL 1K-1

Device Type

Working Voltage Vds / Vce (V)

Working Current Id / Ic (A)

Gate Drive Vgs (V) — MOSFET only

Switching Frequency (kHz)

Acceptable Loss (%)

Required V_ds/ce (1.5× derate)—

Required I rating (1.5×)—

Max R_ds(on) for loss target—

Conduction Power Loss (typical)—

Gate Drive Requirement—

Recommended Package—

Notes—

Common MOSFETsTAB. 1K-1

Filter MOSFETs

Common BJTsTAB. 1K-2

Filter BJTs

Section 1L Electrical & Electronics

PCB Trace Calculator

Microstrip characteristic impedance for controlled-impedance routing, and IPC-2221 current-carrying capacity for power and signal traces. Defaults assume FR-4 (ε_r = 4.5).

Microstrip ImpedanceTOOL 1L-1

Trace Width w (mil)

Substrate Height h (mil)

Trace Thickness t (mil, 1 oz = 1.4)

ε_r (substrate)

Z₀ (single-ended)—

ε_eff (effective)—

Propagation Delay—

Wavelength @ 1 GHz—

Wadell / Hammerstad formula. Accurate within a few percent for 0.1 ≤ w/h ≤ 20. For 50 Ω on standard 6-mil FR-4: ≈ 11 mil. Add ~5% margin for manufacturing variation.

Current Capacity (IPC-2221)TOOL 1L-2

Current (A)

Temp Rise ΔT (°C)

Copper Weight (oz)

Layer

Min Trace Width—

Cross-Sectional Area—

Current Density—

IPC-2221 empirical formula: I = k · ΔT^0.44 · A^0.725. k = 0.048 (external) or 0.024 (internal). ΔT = 10°C is conservative; 20°C is common for power traces. Add vias and pour on critical power paths.

Common Substrate Dielectric ConstantsTAB. 1L-1

Material	ε_r	Loss Tan	Use Case

Section 1M Electrical & Electronics

Filter Designer

First-order RC and second-order LC passive filters. Set the cutoff and one component value; the other is computed. Magnitude response sketch shown for context.

Filter SetupTOOL 1M-1

Filter Type

Cutoff Frequency (Hz)

R (Ω)

C (F) — leave blank to solve

Enter cutoff and one component; the other is computed. For LC band-pass / band-reject filters Q = (1/R)·√(L/C); set R to control bandwidth.

Computed Component—

Standard E12 nearest—

Actual cutoff with E12—

Roll-off slope—

Time constant τ—

Q factor (LC only)—

E12 / E24 Standard Component ValuesTAB. 1M-1

Series	Tolerance	Values (×10ⁿ)
E6	±20%	`1.0 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.7 6.8`
E12	±10%	`1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2`
E24	±5%	`1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.1`
E48	±2%	48 per decade
E96	±1%	96 per decade

Section 1N Electrical & Electronics

Battery Reference

A reference for common rechargeable and primary chemistries (Li-ion, LiPo, LiFePO4, NiMH, NiCd, alkaline, lead-acid) covering nominal voltage, energy density, cycle life, self-discharge, and safe operating range. Includes capacity math (mAh to Wh, series and parallel pack design), runtime estimation, C-rate, and charging fundamentals. For battery management circuits and protection, see 1E Electrical Formulas and 1H Thermal Calculator.

Chemistry ComparisonFIG. 1N-1

Nominal V is the working voltage; full charge and end-of-discharge differ. Energy density is per kilogram (Wh/kg) for comparative sizing. Cycle life is to 80% original capacity at 1C discharge. Self-discharge is per month at room temperature. Operating range matters most for outdoor and unconditioned-space applications.

Capacity CalculatorTOOL 1N-1

Cell Capacity (mAh)

Cell Nominal Voltage (V)

Cells in Series (S)

Cells in Parallel (P)

Continuous Load (A)

Cell Energy—

Pack Configuration—

Pack Nominal Voltage—

Pack Capacity—

Pack Energy—

Estimated Runtime—

Discharge Rate (C)—

Series adds voltage (S×V), parallel adds capacity (P×mAh). Real-world runtime is 80-90% of theoretical due to internal resistance and load profile. Cells in parallel must be matched (same chemistry, capacity, age, voltage) or they will fight each other and one will overcharge.

C-Rate ReferenceTAB. 1N-1

C-Rate	Time to Full Discharge	Use
0.1C	10 hours	Long-duration loads (DC backup, low-power sensors)
0.2C	5 hours	Standard charging rate for many chemistries
0.5C	2 hours	Moderate; typical for portable electronics
1C	1 hour	Specification benchmark; capacity ratings use 1C
2C	30 minutes	Tools, vapes, e-bikes (cells must support it)
5C	12 minutes	RC vehicles, drones; high-discharge cells only
10C+	6 minutes or less	Racing drones, motor starts; specialty cells

A 3500 mAh cell at 1C delivers 3.5 A for one hour. At 2C it delivers 7 A for 30 minutes. Manufacturers spec maximum continuous and burst C-rates separately; exceeding continuous voids life and causes heating. For Li-ion, sustained discharge above 1-2C significantly reduces cycle life.

Common Cell SizesTAB. 1N-2

Cell	Diameter × Length (mm)	Typical Capacity	Chemistry	Use
18650	18 × 65	2500-3500 mAh	Li-ion	Laptops, tools, flashlights, e-bikes, Tesla Model S
21700	21 × 70	4000-5000 mAh	Li-ion	Tools, e-bikes, Tesla Model 3
26650	26 × 65	5000-6000 mAh	Li-ion / LiFePO4	Flashlights, energy storage
14500	14 × 50	700-900 mAh	Li-ion	AA-sized; 3.7V; not interchangeable with alkaline
10440	10 × 44	300-400 mAh	Li-ion	AAA-sized; 3.7V; not interchangeable with alkaline
AA	14.5 × 50.5	2000-3000 mAh	Alkaline / NiMH	Ubiquitous; 1.5V (alkaline) or 1.2V (NiMH)
AAA	10.5 × 44.5	800-1200 mAh	Alkaline / NiMH	Small electronics; same V as AA
C	26 × 50	6000-8000 mAh	Alkaline / NiMH	Larger devices, lanterns
D	34 × 61.5	10000-12000 mAh	Alkaline / NiMH	Long-runtime devices
9V (PP3)	26 × 17 × 48	500-600 mAh	Alkaline / NiMH	Smoke alarms, multimeters, guitar pedals
CR2032	20 × 3.2	220 mAh	Li-MnO2 (primary)	Coin cell; RTCs, key fobs, motherboards
CR123A	17 × 34.5	1500 mAh	Li-MnO2 (primary)	Cameras, flashlights, smoke alarms
LiPo pouch	varies (flat)	100-10000+ mAh	LiPo	Phones, drones, custom packs

Charging FundamentalsTAB. 1N-3

Chemistry	Charge Profile	Charge Voltage	Float / End	Notes
Li-ion / LiPo	CC then CV	4.20 V/cell	terminate at 0.05C	0.5C standard, 1C max for most cells. Never overcharge.
LiFePO4	CC then CV	3.65 V/cell	terminate at 0.05C	Inherently safer than Li-ion; longer cycle life.
NiMH	CC, delta-V cutoff	varies	-dV or temperature	1.4-1.5 V at top; smart chargers detect -dV.
NiCd	CC, delta-V cutoff	varies	-dV or temperature	Memory effect; full discharge before recharge.
Lead-acid (flooded)	3-stage: bulk / abs / float	14.4 V (12V batt)	13.2-13.8 V float	Float can be maintained continuously.
Lead-acid (AGM)	3-stage	14.4-14.7 V	13.5-13.8 V float	Lower self-discharge than flooded; spill-proof.
Alkaline (primary)	do not charge	—	—	Some "rechargeable alkalines" exist but cycle life is poor.

CC = constant current, CV = constant voltage. Li-ion charges to a voltage limit then holds until current tapers; this is the universal safe profile. Lead-acid has three stages: high current bulk, taper to absorption, then maintenance float. NiMH and NiCd use delta-V detection (the voltage briefly dips at full charge); good chargers also use temperature cutoff as a safety backup.

Section 2F Mechanical

Fastener Torque Reference

Recommended torque values for standard metric (ISO classes 8.8, 10.9, 12.9) and imperial (SAE grades 5 and 8) fasteners. Dry, lubricated, and threadlocker conditions all change these values; values shown are for dry, clean threads.

Unit ConverterTOOL 2F-1

Newton·meters (N·m)

Foot·pounds (ft·lb)

Inch·pounds (in·lb)

kg·centimeters (kgf·cm)

1 N·m = 0.7376 ft·lb = 8.851 in·lb = 10.197 kgf·cm.

Metric Fasteners (ISO Class 8.8, 10.9, 12.9)TAB. 2F-1

Size	Pitch (mm)	Hex (mm)	8.8 (N·m)	10.9 (N·m)	12.9 (N·m)

8.8 = medium-carbon steel (≈ Grade 5), 10.9 = alloy steel (≈ Grade 8), 12.9 = high-tensile alloy. Dry threads, K = 0.20. Reduce by ~25% for lubricated threads or with anti-seize.

Imperial Fasteners (SAE Grade 5 & 8)TAB. 2F-2

Size	TPI	Hex (in)	Grade 5 (ft·lb)	Grade 8 (ft·lb)

Grade 5 = medium carbon (≈ Class 8.8), Grade 8 = alloy steel (≈ Class 10.9). Dry threads. Values shown are for coarse (UNC) threads.

Section 2G Mechanical

Beam Deflection

Maximum deflection for standard beam configurations under static loading. Useful for enclosure brackets, mounting rails, shelves, and quick "will this bend too much" sanity checks.

Deflection CalculatorTOOL 2G-1

Configuration

Cross-Section

Material

Length L (mm)

Load P (N) — point load

Width b (mm)

Height h (mm)

Inner width b' (mm)

Inner height h' (mm)

OD d (mm)

ID (mm)

Second Moment of Area I—

Max Deflection δ—

Max Bending Stress σ—

Deflection per length—

Stiffness assessment—

For static loads only. Buckling, fatigue, and dynamic loading are not considered here. The deflection/length ratio gives a quick stiffness check: 1/360 is typical floor limit, 1/240 is loose, 1/150+ feels rubbery.

Section 2H Mechanical

Bearing & Shaft Fits (ISO 286)

Reference for common hole-basis fits per ISO 286. Hole tolerance is H7 in all standard combinations; shaft tolerance varies by fit class. Tolerance values shown in micrometers (µm) for the indicated nominal-size range.

Fit LookupTOOL 2H-1

Nominal Size (mm)

Fit Class

Hole tolerance (µm)—

Shaft tolerance (µm)—

Max material clearance—

Min material clearance—

Fit type—

Positive values = clearance, negative = interference. ISO 286 tolerance values from the standard for nominal-size brackets (≤3, >3-6, >6-10, >10-18, >18-30, >30-50, >50-80, >80-120, >120-180, >180-250). For interference fits, calculate press-on force and check the shaft and bore yield stress before assembly.

Section 2I Mechanical

Material Properties Reference

Density, modulus, strength, thermal expansion, and machinability for the materials you actually use at the bench. Filterable by category. Beam-deflection (2G) reads its E and yield values from this same database.

FilterTOOL 2I-1

Search

Symbol	Property	Unit	What it tells you
E	Young's modulus (elastic)	GPa	Stiffness in tension and bending. Higher means less deflection per load.
σ_y	Yield strength	MPa	Stress where permanent deformation begins. Stay well below.
σ_u	Ultimate tensile strength	MPa	Maximum stress before fracture in tension.
ρ	Density	g/cm³	Mass per volume. Multiply by part volume for weight.
α	Coefficient of thermal expansion	µm/m·K	Length change per degree. Critical for press fits and dissimilar materials.
k	Thermal conductivity	W/m·K	Heat transfer rate. Matters for heatsinks and bearing surfaces.
Mach.	Machinability rating	%	Relative to free-machining brass C360 = 100. Higher is easier.

Sheet Metal Bending

K-factor lookup, bend allowance and deduction calculator, minimum bend radius reference, and standard hem dimensions. Bend allowance assumes air bending or 90-degree die forming; press-brake numbers may differ slightly.

Feature	Recommended	Notes
Closed hem (flat)	4×t minimum length	Folds material back on itself; press to close.
Open hem (teardrop)	4×t minimum, ID ≈ t	Leaves a small bead inside; less stress.
Tab base width	≥ 2×t	Narrower tabs distort during forming.
Tab length	≤ 5×t unsupported	Longer tabs need bracing or a second weld.
Hole edge clearance	≥ 2×t from bend line	Closer holes distort during forming.
Slot for flush mount	Width = bolt OD + 0.5 mm	Adjustment slots; longer than the bolt diameter.

Geometry & Trig Solver

Right triangles, oblique triangles, arc and chord relationships, and a bolt-circle generator that lays out X / Y coordinates for any pitch circle.

Right TriangleTOOL 2K-1

Enter any 2 of the 5 values. Leave the others blank.

Side a (opp angle A)

Side b (opp angle B)

Hypotenuse c

Angle A (deg)

Angle B (deg)

a—

b—

c (hypotenuse)—

Angle A—

Angle B—

Area—

Oblique Triangle (Law of Sines and Cosines)TOOL 2K-2

Enter any 3 of the 6 values, including at least one side. SSA cases may have two valid solutions; the smaller-angle solution is shown.

Side a

Side b

Side c

Angle A (deg)

Angle B (deg)

Angle C (deg)

a—

b—

c—

Angle A—

Angle B—

Angle C—

Area (Heron)—

Bolt Circle LayoutTOOL 2K-3

Bolt Circle Diameter (BCD)

Number of Bolts

Start Angle (deg, CCW from +X)

Center X

Center Y

Arc, Chord, SagittaTOOL 2K-4

Enter any 2 of (radius, chord, sagitta, arc angle).

Radius R

Chord length c

Sagitta h (arc height)

Arc angle θ (deg, subtended)

Radius R—

Chord c—

Sagitta h—

Angle θ—

Arc length s—

Section 2L Mechanical

Helical Compression Spring Design

Spring rate k from wire and coil geometry, peak stress using the Wahl correction factor, and material allowable-stress lookup. Enter what you know; the rest is solved.

Spring CalculatorTOOL 2L-1

Wire Material

Wire Diameter d (mm)

Mean Coil Diameter D (mm)

Active Coils N_a

Applied Force F (N) — for stress check

End Type

Spring Index C = D/d—

Wahl Factor K_w—

Spring Rate k—

Deflection under F—

Stress under F (τ)—

Allowable Stress (τ_allow)—

Solid Length L_s—

Total Coils N_t—

—

Spring rate: k = G·d⁴ / (8·D³·N_a). Stress at force F: τ = K_w · (8·F·D) / (π·d³). Wahl factor: K_w = (4C−1)/(4C−4) + 0.615/C. G = 79.3 GPa for steel, 41 GPa for phosphor bronze. Spring index C should land between 4 and 12 for good manufacturability and stability.

Wire Material ReferenceTAB. 2L-1

Material	UTS (small d)	τ_allow fraction	G modulus	Typical use
Music wire (A228)	~2000 MPa	0.45 σ_u	79.3 GPa	Highest quality; precision springs.
Hard-drawn (A227)	~1700 MPa	0.45 σ_u	79.3 GPa	Lower-cost general purpose.
Chrome-vanadium (A232)	~1900 MPa	0.45 σ_u	79.3 GPa	Higher fatigue resistance; valve springs.
Stainless 302 (A313)	~1850 MPa	0.35 σ_u	69 GPa	Corrosion resistance.
Phosphor bronze	~800 MPa	0.40 σ_u	41 GPa	Electrical contacts; mildly corrosive environments.

Section 2M Mechanical

Wood Reference

Dimensional lumber and sheet stock sizes (nominal vs actual), pilot-hole sizing by species and screw gauge, Janka hardness, shrinkage values, and species notes for furniture and cabinet work.

Pilot Hole SelectorTOOL 2M-1

Wood Density

Screw Gauge

Pilot drill (thread engagement)—

Clearance drill (free pass)—

Countersink ⌀ for flat head—

Pilot the entire screw length in hardwoods to prevent splitting. In softwood, pilot only the thread length and use a clearance hole for the shank.

Softwood Lumber DimensionsTAB. 2M-1

Nominal	Actual (in)	Actual (mm)

Softwood is sold by nominal dimension; actual is smaller after planing and drying. Standard since 1964; older lumber may be closer to nominal.

Hardwood Lumber Thickness (Quarters)TAB. 2M-2

Quarter	Rough (in)	S2S (in)	S2S (mm)

Hardwood is sold rough by the quarter-inch. S2S = surfaced two sides; loses about 1/16" per face.

Plywood ThicknessTAB. 2M-3

Nominal	Softwood plywood	Hardwood / Baltic Birch	Notes
1/4"	0.21" (5.2 mm)	6 mm (Baltic), 5.2 mm (HW)	Cabinet backs, drawer bottoms.
3/8"	0.34" (8.7 mm)	9 mm (Baltic)	Occasional back panels.
1/2"	0.46" (11.6 mm)	12 mm (Baltic), 11.6 mm (HW)	Light cabinetry, drawer sides.
5/8"	0.59" (15.1 mm)	15 mm (Baltic)	Sub-floor.
3/4"	0.71" (18.3 mm)	18 mm (Baltic), 18.3 mm (HW)	Cabinet boxes, shelves, jigs.

Baltic Birch is sold metric and is true to thickness within a fraction of a mm. Hardwood ply varies more by mill.

Species: Janka Hardness and MovementTAB. 2M-4

Janka hardness is the load needed to push an 11.28 mm steel ball halfway into the wood (lbf). Shrinkage values are radial / tangential / volumetric percentages from green to oven-dry. Tangential shrinkage exceeds radial in nearly every species, which drives cupping in flat-sawn boards.

Section 2N Mechanical

Hardness and Surface Finish

Hardness conversion between Rockwell C / B, Vickers, Brinell, and equivalent tensile strength. Surface roughness (Ra) reference for typical fabrication processes.

Hardness ConverterTOOL 2N-1

Input Scale

Value

Conversions are empirical and approximate; accurate to within ±2 points across the practical range for steel. Soft non-ferrous metals don't follow these curves — use direct measurement.

Rockwell C (HRC)—

Rockwell B (HRB)—

Vickers (HV)—

Brinell (HB)—

Tensile (approx.)—

Common Steel Heat Treatments and HardnessTAB. 2N-1

State	HRC	HRB	Notes
1018 (cold-drawn)	—	71	Soft; machinable, weldable.
4140 annealed	—	92	Machinable; baseline before heat treatment.
4140 normalized	20-22	97	After heating to about 870°C and air cool.
4140 quench & temper	28-40	—	Common shaft and gear condition.
A2 tool steel (HT)	58-62	—	Air-hardening; punches, dies.
D2 tool steel (HT)	58-62	—	High-Cr; long-wear tooling.
O1 tool steel (HT)	58-64	—	Oil-quench; precision tooling.
M2 HSS (HT)	62-66	—	Cutting tools.
52100 bearing steel	60-66	—	Ball and roller bearings.
304 stainless (annealed)	—	80	Work-hardens with cold forming.
17-4PH H900	40-45	—	Precipitation-hardened stainless.

Surface Roughness (Ra) by ProcessTAB. 2N-2

Process	Typical Ra (µm)	Typical Ra (µin)	Where used
Sand cast	12.5 - 25	500 - 1000	As-cast surface; not for mating.
Hot rolled	6.3 - 12.5	250 - 500	Structural steel mill finish.
Forged	3.2 - 12.5	125 - 500	As-forged; usually machined after.
Saw cut	6.3 - 12.5	250 - 500	Bandsaw, cold saw.
Drilled hole	3.2 - 6.3	125 - 250	Standard twist drill in steel.
End milled, rough	3.2 - 6.3	125 - 250	Heavy roughing pass.
End milled, finish	0.8 - 3.2	32 - 125	Light finishing pass, sharp tool.
Turned, rough	1.6 - 6.3	63 - 250	Typical lathe roughing.
Turned, finish	0.4 - 1.6	16 - 63	Finish pass with sharp tool.
Reamed	0.8 - 3.2	32 - 125	Final hole finish for fit.
Grinding, rough	0.4 - 1.6	16 - 63	Cylindrical or surface grinding.
Grinding, finish	0.1 - 0.4	4 - 16	Fine grinding; bearing surfaces.
Honing	0.05 - 0.4	2 - 16	Bores, hydraulic cylinders.
Lapping	0.025 - 0.4	1 - 16	Gauge blocks, optics.
Polished	0.01 - 0.1	0.4 - 4	Optical, mirror finish.

Ra = arithmetic average roughness. Convert: 1 µm = 39.4 µin. For matched surfaces, finish requirements step down with precision: bearing journals at 0.2-0.4 µm, sliding fits at 0.8-1.6, general machined at 1.6-6.3.

Section 2O Mechanical

Pulleys, Belts, and Gears

Timing belt selection, pulley geometry, belt length calculation, and gear-ratio calculations for motion control.

Belt Length CalculatorTOOL 2O-1

Belt Pitch

Pulley 1 Teeth (drive)

Pulley 2 Teeth (driven)

Center Distance C (mm)

Pitch Diameter (drive)—

Pitch Diameter (driven)—

Speed Ratio (drive : driven)—

Belt Length L—

Belt Teeth (approx.)—

Wrap angle (drive)—

Belt length: L = 2C + (π/2)(PD1+PD2) + (PD1−PD2)²/(4C). Round up to the next available standard belt length; take up slack at the tensioner or with a slotted motor mount.

Gear Ratio CalculatorTOOL 2O-2

System

Module m (mm) — or DP (1/in)

Pinion Teeth N1

Gear Teeth N2

Pinion Input Speed (rpm)

Input Torque (N·m)

Gear Ratio (output / input)—

Pinion PD—

Gear PD—

Center Distance C—

Output Speed—

Output Torque (ideal)—

Metric: PD = N × m. Imperial: PD = N / DP. Center distance C = (N1+N2)·m / 2 for metric, (N1+N2) / (2·DP) for imperial. Output torque = input × ratio (ideal; real gears lose about 2-5% per mesh).

Timing Belt PitchesTAB. 2O-1

Designation	Pitch	Use
GT2 / 2GT	2 mm	3D printers, light positioning. Common 6-9 mm widths.
GT3 / 3M	3 mm	Higher torque than GT2; still hobby and positioning.
GT5 / 5M / HTD 5M	5 mm	CNC routers, robotics; widely available.
HTD 8M	8 mm	Higher-torque industrial drives.
HTD 14M	14 mm	Very high torque; large machinery.
MXL	2.032 mm	Vintage / inch-pitch small belts.
XL	5.08 mm	Office machines, light power transmission.
L	9.525 mm	General industrial.
H	12.7 mm	Heavier industrial.

GT-series (curvilinear tooth) has higher load capacity than older trapezoidal types (MXL, XL, L, H). HTD profile is similar to GT but slightly older; widely interchangeable with same-pitch GT pulleys.

Section 2P Mechanical

Welding Reference

Electrode and filler-wire selection for SMAW (stick), GMAW (MIG), FCAW (flux-core), and GTAW (TIG). Gas-mix reference and a heat-input calculator.

Heat Input CalculatorTOOL 2P-1

Process

Voltage (V)

Current (A)

Travel Speed (mm/min)

Heat Input (kJ/mm)—

Heat Input (kJ/in)—

Arc Efficiency (η)—

Net Heat (η × Q)—

—

Q (J/mm) = (V × I × 60) / travel speed (mm/min). Divide by 1000 for kJ/mm. Typical ranges: GTAW 0.2-1.0, SMAW 0.5-2.0, GMAW 0.4-1.5, FCAW 0.6-2.0 kJ/mm. Too much heat input coarsens the grain and warps the work; too little leaves cold lap or porosity.

SMAW Electrodes (Stick)TAB. 2P-1

GMAW Wires (MIG)TAB. 2P-2

GTAW Filler (TIG)TAB. 2P-3

Shielding Gas MixesTAB. 2P-4

Gas	Process	Use
75/25 Ar/CO₂ (C25)	GMAW	Standard for mild steel; balanced penetration and spatter.
90/10 Ar/CO₂	GMAW	Less spatter; sheet metal and finish welds.
100% CO₂	GMAW, FCAW	Deepest penetration on mild steel; more spatter.
98/2 Ar/O₂	GMAW	Stainless steel; small oxygen for arc stability.
Tri-mix (90 He / 7.5 Ar / 2.5 CO₂)	GMAW	Stainless steel; better profile than 98/2.
100% Ar	GTAW, GMAW (alum.)	TIG anything; MIG aluminum.
75/25 Ar/He	GTAW, GMAW (alum.)	Aluminum thicker than 6 mm; helium adds heat.
100% He	GMAW (thick alum.)	Very thick aluminum; runs hot.

Section 2Q Mechanical

Pressure and Pneumatic

Pneumatic cylinder force, thin-wall and thick-wall hoop stress, and reference pressure ratings for tubing and fittings. Useful for actuated fixtures, shop air systems, and small fluid vessels.

Cylinder ForceTOOL 2Q-1

Cylinder Bore Diameter (mm)

Rod Diameter (mm)

Working Pressure (bar)

Piston Area (push)—

Annular Area (pull)—

Push Force (extend)—

Pull Force (retract)—

Push Force (lbf)—

Pull Force (lbf)—

F = P × A. Push acts on full piston area; pull acts on the annular area (piston minus rod). Shop air is typically 6-7 bar (90-100 psi). 1 bar = 14.5 psi, and 1 mm² × 1 bar = 0.1 N.

Thin- and Thick-Wall Hoop StressTOOL 2Q-2

Internal Pressure (bar)

Inner Radius r (mm)

Wall Thickness t (mm)

Material Yield (MPa)

r / t ratio—

Hoop Stress (thin-wall)—

Hoop Stress (thick, Lamé)—

Longitudinal Stress—

Safety Factor vs Yield—

—

Thin-wall (r/t ≥ 10): σ_h = P·r / t, σ_long = P·r / (2t). Thick-wall (Lamé): σ_max = P · (r_o² + r_i²) / (r_o² − r_i²). Hoop stress is twice longitudinal — pressure vessels rupture longitudinally. ASME BPVC requires SF ≥ 4 against UTS for boilers; SF ≥ 2 against yield for shop work is a reasonable minimum.

Pneumatic Tubing Pressure RatingsTAB. 2Q-1

Tubing	1/8" OD	1/4" OD	3/8" OD	1/2" OD	Notes
Polyurethane (PU)	200 psi	150 psi	120 psi	100 psi	Flexible, common for shop air.
Nylon	300 psi	200 psi	175 psi	150 psi	Stiffer than PU; better at heat.
LDPE (poly)	150 psi	100 psi	85 psi	60 psi	Cheap, light-duty.
HDPE	200 psi	150 psi	125 psi	100 psi	Better than LDPE for shop use.
PTFE	600 psi	400 psi	300 psi	250 psi	High temp, chemical resistance.

Ratings at 20°C. De-rate by 50% at 60°C, 75% at 80°C. Burst pressure is typically 3-4× rated working pressure; do not approach burst even briefly.

Common Fitting TypesTAB. 2Q-2

Fitting	Typical Rating	Use
Push-to-connect (PTC)	150 psi	Most shop pneumatic; quick assembly.
Compression (instrument)	3000+ psi	Swagelok-style; hydraulic and gas instrumentation.
Barb + clamp	100-150 psi	Low-pressure shop air, water.
NPT threaded	300+ psi	Tapered pipe thread; requires PTFE tape.
BSPP / BSPT	300+ psi	British pipe thread; common in Europe.
JIC 37° flare	3000+ psi	Aerospace and hydraulic; metal-to-metal seal.
SAE 45° flare	1000+ psi	Refrigeration, automotive.

Section 2R Mechanical

Leather Reference

Weight and thickness conversion, saddle-stitch thread length, stitches per inch, needle and thread pairing, tannage characteristics, hide yields, and hardware sizing. Centered on vegetable-tanned and chrome-tanned cowhide work; the same conventions apply to most flat-goods and small-leather work.

Weight ↔ Thickness ConverterTOOL 2R-1

Enter weight (oz)

or enter thickness (mm)

or enter thickness (in)

Weight—

Thickness (mm)—

Thickness (in)—

Typical Use—

Convention: 1 oz of leather = 1/64 inch (~0.40 mm) of thickness. Tanneries usually grade in a one-ounce range (5/6 oz, 7/8 oz, etc.) because thickness varies across a hide. Belly is thinner than back; shoulder is between.

Leather Weight ReferenceTAB. 2R-1

Weight	Thickness	mm	Typical Application
1-2 oz	1/64-1/32"	0.4-0.8	Linings, garment, glove leather, bookbinding inlay.
2-3 oz	1/32-3/64"	0.8-1.2	Wallet interiors, light garment, soft pouches.
3-4 oz	3/64-1/16"	1.2-1.6	Watch straps, journal covers, card holders, bag linings.
4-5 oz	1/16-5/64"	1.6-2.0	Bifold wallets (folded), light bag bodies, dog collars.
5-6 oz	5/64-3/32"	2.0-2.4	Bag bodies, light belts, knife sheath bodies, guitar straps.
6-7 oz	3/32-7/64"	2.4-2.8	Standard belts, holsters, sheaths, heavier bag bodies.
7-8 oz	7/64-1/8"	2.8-3.2	Heavy belts, holsters, work-belt construction.
8-10 oz	1/8-5/32"	3.2-4.0	Tooled holsters, knife sheaths, heavy straps, dog harness.
10-12 oz	5/32-3/16"	4.0-4.8	Saddle skirting, armor, structural straps.
12-14 oz	3/16-7/32"	4.8-5.6	Heavy saddle, harness, very stiff structural work.

For folded items (wallets, sheaths), choose a weight that gives the final folded stack the stiffness you want. A two-piece bifold in 4 oz × 4 oz behaves differently than a single 8 oz layer at the same total thickness.

Saddle-Stitch Thread LengthTOOL 2R-2

Seam Length (in)

Stitches per Inch (SPI)

Stack Thickness (in)

Tail Allowance per End (in)

Quick (×4 rule)—

Detailed Estimate—

Number of Stitches—

Recommended Cut

Quick rule: cut thread = seam × 4. The detailed estimate accounts for two needles each traveling one stitch length per stitch plus penetrating the leather stack twice, then adds tails and 10% waste. Always round up. Running short mid-seam is worse than wasting a foot of thread.

Pricking Iron Spacing & SPITAB. 2R-2

Spacing (mm)	SPI (≈)	Spacing (in, ≈)	Common Use
2.00	12.7	0.079	Very fine; small leather goods, edge stitch on thin work.
2.45	10.4	0.096	Fine; wallets, watch straps, card holders. Common French maker spacing.
2.70	9.4	0.106	Standard fine; wallets, small bags, fine bridle work.
3.00	8.5	0.118	Medium-fine; bags, briefcases, larger flat goods.
3.38	7.5	0.133	Medium; bags, holsters, larger items.
3.85	6.6	0.151	Medium-coarse; belts, holsters, sheaths.
4.50	5.6	0.177	Coarse; heavy belts, saddle skirting borders.
5.00	5.1	0.197	Very coarse; heavy saddle and harness work.

European makers list pricking irons in millimeters (Vergez Blanchard, KS Blade, Crimson Hides); American chisels often list teeth per inch. SPI = 25.4 / spacing_mm. Mark with pricking iron, pierce with awl, stitch with two harness needles.

Harness Needle & Thread PairingTAB. 2R-3

Needle Size	Eye Width	Thread Diameter	Ritza 25 Tiger	Application
000 (heaviest)	1.2 mm	1.0-1.2 mm	1.2 mm	Heavy saddle, harness, very coarse work.
00	1.0 mm	0.8-1.0 mm	1.0 mm	Belts, holsters, heavy bags.
0	0.9 mm	0.6-0.8 mm	0.8 mm	Standard; bags, briefcases, holsters.
1	0.8 mm	0.5-0.7 mm	0.6 mm	Wallets, watch straps, medium flat goods.
2	0.7 mm	0.4-0.6 mm	0.6 mm	Fine wallet stitching, small leather goods.
3	0.6 mm	0.4 mm	0.4 mm	Very fine work, decorative stitching.
4 (finest)	0.5 mm	≤0.4 mm	—	Specialist fine work.

Sizing is John James convention. The eye must accept the thread without splitting it, but oversize needles tear unnecessarily large holes. For Ritza 25 (Tiger thread): match thread diameter to needle size and the leather will close cleanly around the stitch.

Tannage ReferenceTAB. 2R-4

Tannage	Process	Characteristics	Typical Use
Vegetable	Tannins from oak, chestnut, mimosa. Months in pits or weeks in drums.	Stiff, body, takes water and dye well, tools, carves, burnishes. Ages to dark patina with use and UV.	Belts, holsters, saddles, tooled work, sheaths, structural goods.
Chrome	Chromium(III) salts. ~1 day in drums.	Soft, supple, drapes, water-resistant, colorfast, dimensionally stable. Doesn't tool, doesn't burnish.	Garment leather, shoe uppers, upholstery, fashion bags, gloves.
Oil (chamois)	Fish or animal oils, fully impregnated.	Very soft, supple, water-resistant, weatherproof. Yellow-tan color.	Boot leather, work gloves, traditional outdoor and military.
Combination	Chrome-tanned then re-tanned with veg.	Hybrid: more body and tooling response than chrome, more supple than veg. Edges burnish moderately.	Bags, belts, modern flat goods (Buttero, Pueblo are well-known examples).
Bark (pit-tanned veg)	Slowest veg tannage; 6-18 months.	Densest body, finest grain, premium price. Often single-source bark (oak).	High-end saddles, bridles, museum-grade restoration.
Brain-tanned	Traditional method; brain emulsion, smoke-finished.	Very soft, breathable, smoke-cured for water resistance. Tan to brown color.	Traditional buckskin, moccasins, regalia.

Veg-tan smells of bark and is firm; chrome-tan smells faintly chemical and bends like fabric. Edge behavior is the quickest tell: veg burnishes glassy with water and friction; chrome refuses to burnish and must be edge-painted.

Hide YieldsTAB. 2R-5

Hide	Side (sq ft)	Full (sq ft)	Notes
Cowhide	18-30	40-55	The standard reference. Sides and double-shoulders are most commonly stocked.
Bull hide	25-35	50-65	Thicker and larger than steer. Heavy structural work.
Calfskin	—	6-15	Fine grain, premium small-goods leather. Sold whole.
Kid / Goatskin	—	5-9	Strong for weight, distinctive pebble grain. Sold whole.
Deerskin	—	7-12	Very stretchy, soft. Gloves, moccasins, garment.
Pigskin	—	8-12	Three-dot pore pattern. Linings, gloves, suede.
Kangaroo	—	5-9	Highest strength-to-weight of common leathers. Boots, whips, premium straps.
Lambskin	—	5-9	Very soft, garment grade. Light gloves, jackets.
Horsehide / Shell Cordovan	12-18	25-35	Shell is the dense fiber layer of the rump, ~3-5 sq ft per side. Premium wallet and shoe material.

Allow 15-25% waste for layout once you account for belly thinning, brands, scars, and grain direction. Cutting plans that align grain with stress (along the spine, along strap length) reduce stretch and improve longevity.

Hardware & Rivets Quick ReferenceTAB. 2R-6

Hardware	Sizes	Leather Range	Notes
Double-cap rivets, small	6-7 mm post	2-4 oz	Light wallets, small flat goods. Stack height 2-3 mm.
Double-cap rivets, medium	8-9 mm post	4-7 oz	Bags, belts, holsters. Most-used size.
Double-cap rivets, large	10-12 mm post	7-10 oz	Heavy belts, structural bag joins.
Copper rivets & burrs #9	9/16" post	8-12 oz	Traditional heavy work. Set with burr, peen and trim.
Copper rivets & burrs #12	1" post	12+ oz	Saddle and harness. Largest common copper rivet.
Chicago screws	1/8-3/8" post	4-12 oz	Removable; bridle/strap-end fasteners, replaceable belt buckles.
Line 20 snap	12.5 mm cap	3-6 oz	Wallets, bag closures, light strap.
Line 24 snap	15 mm cap	4-8 oz	Standard bag and strap snap.
Eyelet #0-#5	1/8 - 1/2" ID	2-8 oz	Lace holes, drawstrings. Set with anvil and concave punch.
Sam Browne stud	10 mm head	6-10 oz	Slotted closure on belts, holster retention.

Post length should equal the stack thickness plus 1.5-2.5 mm for the cap to seat. Too short pulls through; too long buckles sideways. Solid brass and copper resist corrosion; nickel plate is the budget standard.

Edge Finishing MethodsTAB. 2R-7

Method	Leather	Process	Look
Burnishing (water)	Veg-tan only	Bevel, sand to 400, dampen, slick with wood/canvas/bone folder.	Smooth, slightly glossy, natural color.
Burnishing (gum trag)	Veg-tan	As above, with gum tragacanth as a slip.	Higher polish than water alone.
Saddle soap burnish	Veg-tan	Apply saddle soap, slick with canvas. Old-school technique.	Soft polish, traditional saddle look.
Beeswax finish	Veg-tan	Burnish first, then rub beeswax in and re-slick.	Sealed, slightly waxy hand.
Edge paint (acrylic)	Chrome, combo, veg	Bevel, sand, paint in 2-4 coats with sanding between, heat-set.	Hard glass-like edge, any color. Fenice, Giardini, Vernis 911.
Edge paint (slicked)	Combo, veg	Paint, then dry-slick with hot iron edge-creaser.	Rounded glossy edge.

Edge progression: skive any liner overhang, bevel both faces (#1 for small goods, #2 for belts), sand 220 → 320 → 400 → 600, then finish. Burnishing only works on leathers with collagen still bound by tannins (veg-tan); chrome leather is fundamentally smooth-edged and must be coated.

Section 2S Mechanical

Ceramics Reference

Pyrometric cone temperatures, shrinkage math, clay body characteristics, firing schedules, glaze chemistry basics, coloring oxides, atmosphere effects, and clay-state workability. Centered on wheel-thrown and hand-built work in earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain bodies.

Cone ↔ Temperature ConverterTOOL 2S-1

Ramp rate (last 200°C / 360°F)

Enter cone number

or enter temperature (°C)

or enter temperature (°F)

Cone—

Temperature (°C)—

Temperature (°F)—

Firing Category—

Cones measure heatwork (time × temperature), not just temperature, so the same cone tips at a lower temperature when fired slower. Values are Orton self-supporting cone end-points; large and small cones differ slightly. Use cone numbers as the firing target, not raw thermocouple readings.

Pyrometric Cone ReferenceTAB. 2S-1

Cone	Slow °C	Slow °F	Fast °C	Fast °F	Typical Use

Slow ramp: 60°C/hr (108°F/hr) over final 200°C. Fast ramp: 150°C/hr (270°F/hr). Numbers with a leading zero get colder as the digit increases (022 is coldest); numbers without zero get hotter (cone 14 is hottest in this set). Reference: Orton Ceramic Foundation self-supporting cone chart.

Shrinkage CalculatorTOOL 2S-2

Total Shrinkage (%)

Target Fired Dimension

or Wet Clay Dimension

Units

Wet Clay Size—

Fired Size—

Shrinkage—

Volume Shrinkage—

Linear shrinkage compounds on volume: a 12% linear shrinkage = (1 − 0.88³) = 32% volume loss. Test your specific clay body: fire a 10 cm bar from wet, measure at bone-dry, then again after glaze fire. Most commercial bodies publish the number; verify it once before you scale up.

Clay Body ReferenceTAB. 2S-2

Body	Maturity Cone	Shrinkage	Absorption	Notes
Red Earthenware	04-02	10-13%	5-15%	Iron-rich. Terracotta family. Porous; needs glaze for water service. Forgiving on the wheel.
White Earthenware	04-02	10-13%	8-15%	Light-firing low-fire body. Common for slip-casting and decorative work.
Mid-fire Stoneware	5-7	11-14%	1-3%	The dominant electric-kiln body. Functional, dense, broad glaze palette.
High-fire Stoneware	9-11	12-15%	<1%	Reduction or gas firing. Iron speckle, classic celadon and tenmoku response.
Porcelain	9-11	12-15%	<1%	Translucent at thin section. Demanding plasticity. White ground for color work.
Raku Body	06-08 (bisque)	7-10%	5-12%	Open grog body, takes thermal shock for raku withdrawal and reduction.
Terracotta	06-04	8-11%	8-15%	Iron-rich low-fire body. Garden pots, traditional figurative work.
Bone China	6-8	12-15%	<1%	30-50% bone ash. Very white, translucent, demanding. Two-stage firing.

"Mid-fire" stoneware at cone 6 is the standard for most North American studio potters with electric kilns. Cone 10 reduction is the traditional aesthetic ground but requires gas and a flue.

Firing Schedule ReferenceTAB. 2S-3

Phase	Range	Rate	Why
Candling (greenware)	0-100°C	slow or hold	Drive residual water before steam can spall the piece.
Organic burnout	100-540°C	100°C/hr	Burn carbon, sulfur, organics. Needs air; vent loosely.
Quartz inversion (up)	540-600°C	slow through	α→β quartz; 1% sudden expansion. Slow to avoid cracks.
Body sintering	600-1000°C	150-200°C/hr	Pieces gain rigidity. Speed acceptable.
Bisque (cone 06-04)	approach 980-1060°C	60-100°C/hr final	Slow last 100°C to ensure even bisque.
Glaze melt (cone 6)	approach 1220°C	60-80°C/hr final	Slow final ramp lets glaze level and bubbles clear.
Hold at peak	at cone	5-20 min	Extra heatwork, smooths glaze surface, deepens colors.
Cooling (down)	peak to 600°C	natural or slow controlled	Controlled slow cool develops crystals in matte/satin glazes.
Quartz inversion (down)	600-540°C	slow through	Dunting risk on cooling. Slow this stretch.
Cool to opening	to <100°C	natural	Resist opening early; thermal shock cracks fired ware.

Cone 6 oxidation electric is the most-fired schedule in studio ceramics. Pre-programmed kiln controllers (Skutt, Bartlett) include "Cone Fire" presets that follow this curve automatically with cone-offset corrections.

Coloring OxidesFIG. 2S-1

Percentages are weight of oxide added to the glaze batch. Carbonates have lower oxide content than the pure oxide so they're used in larger amounts. Reduction firing dramatically shifts copper (green → red) and iron (amber → green celadon, brown → tenmoku). All ceramic oxides are toxic in raw form; wear a respirator when weighing.

Glaze Chemistry BasicsTAB. 2S-4

Group	Role	Common Materials	Unity Range
RO / R₂O (fluxes)	Lower the melt; provide alkali and alkaline-earth oxides.	Soda feldspar, potash feldspar, whiting (CaO), dolomite (CaO·MgO), talc, zinc oxide, lithium carb.	1.0 total
R₂O₃ (stabilizers)	Bind the melt; add durability and resistance to running.	Kaolin, ball clay, alumina hydrate, feldspar (contributes here too).	0.2-0.6
RO₂ (glass formers)	The actual glass. Mostly silica.	Silica (flint, quartz), kaolin (also Al₂O₃), feldspar (also Na/K).	1.5-3.5

Glaze Type	SiO₂ : Al₂O₃	Character
Glossy	7-10 : 1	Smooth, reflective, high silica, low alumina.
Satin	5-7 : 1	Soft sheen, balanced.
Matte	3-5 : 1	Dry surface, alumina-rich, or magnesium matte (talc-based).
Stiff / sculptural	3-5 : 1	Won't run on vertical surfaces.

Unity formula expresses a glaze as molecular ratios with fluxes summed to 1. Tools like Glazy or Insight let you punch in materials and read the unity automatically. Test in tiles; do not guess and pour into a teabowl.

Kiln AtmospheresTAB. 2S-5

Atmosphere	Mechanism	Color Effect
Oxidation	Excess oxygen; clean combustion or electric.	Iron → tan/amber. Copper → green/turquoise. Predictable, modern studio standard.
Reduction	Fuel-rich; CO pulls oxygen from oxides.	Iron → celadon green, tenmoku, oilspot. Copper → red (oxblood, peach bloom). Requires fuel kiln.
Neutral	Stoichiometric combustion; intermediate.	Used between oxidation/reduction cycles to stabilize. Few aesthetic uses on its own.
Salt / Soda	NaCl or Na₂CO₃ introduced at peak. Soda vapor glazes pieces and kiln.	Orange-peel surface, flashing, blush effects. Kiln becomes single-purpose.
Wood	Fuel and ash deposits glaze the pieces over days.	Ash glaze, flashing, fly-ash deposits. Variable, fingerprint of the firing.
Raku	Pieces pulled red-hot and reduced in combustible chamber.	Crackle, metallic lusters, smoke patterning. Fast firings (1-2 hours).

Clay States & WorkabilityTAB. 2S-6

State	Moisture	Work	Notes
Slip	50%+	Casting into plaster molds; decorating.	Stir, sieve to 80-100 mesh. Deflocculant lets it pour at low water content.
Plastic	22-30%	Throwing, hand-building, coiling.	The working state. Body bends without cracking; takes form and holds it.
Soft leather-hard	15-20%	Joining, attaching handles, trimming foot.	Firm to thumb but takes a fingernail mark. Slip and score for joins.
Stiff leather-hard	10-15%	Carving, fine trimming, mishima.	Holds carving; no slip needed for joining (it won't bond well).
Bone-dry	0-3%	Final sanding only.	Very fragile, light in hand, room-temperature throughout. Ready to bisque.
Bisqueware	0%	Underglaze, glaze application.	Porous; takes glaze evenly. Cone 06-04 typical bisque.
Greenware	any unfired	General term for unfired work.	Catch-all for anything between throwing and the kiln.
Glaze-fired	0%	Finished.	Verify by weight (stable) and dunting check (ring test, sharp tone).

Wrap work in plastic to slow drying for joining; uncover gradually to even out moisture across thick and thin sections. Cracks usually trace to uneven drying, not bad clay.

Section 2T Mechanical

Fibers and Weaving

Yarn weight systems, sett calculation, loom warp and weft yardage, natural fiber characteristics, and weave structure reference. Oriented to floor-loom and rigid-heddle weaving with handspun and commercial yarns.

Yarn Count ConverterTOOL 2T-1

System

Value

Cotton (Ne)—

Worsted (Nm)—

Tex—

Denier—

Yards per Pound—

Indirect systems (Ne, Nm, YPP) get LARGER as the yarn gets finer; direct systems (tex, denier) get larger as the yarn gets thicker. Tex × Ne = 590.5. Ne 10 cotton = 8400 yd/lb; Ne 20 = twice as fine = 16800 yd/lb. Hand-weaving yarns often labeled "8/2" (size 8, two-ply): the effective Ne is the size divided by ply, so 8/2 ≈ Ne 4.

Sett Calculator (WPI → EPI)TOOL 2T-2

Wraps per Inch (WPI)

Plain weave (balanced)—

2/2 Twill—

Satin / 8-shaft—

Lace / open work—

Rug / weft-faced—

WPI: wrap your yarn snugly around a 1-inch length of ruler without overlapping, count the wraps. Sett rules: plain weave ≈ WPI / 2, twill ≈ WPI × 2/3, satin ≈ WPI × 3/4, lace ≈ WPI × 0.4, rug warp ≈ WPI × 0.3 (the weft beats down to cover). Sample at the loom before committing the project.

Loom Warp Yardage CalculatorTOOL 2T-3

Finished Width (in)

EPI (ends per inch)

Finished Length (yd)

Loom Waste (in)

Take-up + Shrinkage (%)

Width in Reed—

Total Ends—

Length per End—

Total Warp Yardage—

Pounds @ given YPP—

YPP (for pounds estimate)

Width-in-reed accounts for draw-in (typically 5-10%, included in the take-up percentage). Loom waste is the unwoven portion at front and back of the loom (24-36" typical for a floor loom, less for rigid heddle). Add 10% extra for safety on a new project; you can always wind less than you calculated.

Weft Yardage CalculatorTOOL 2T-4

Width in Reed (in)

PPI (picks per inch)

Woven Length (yd)

Take-up Allowance (%)

Total Picks—

Pick Length—

Total Weft Yardage—

Pounds @ given YPP—

YPP

PPI for a balanced weave roughly equals EPI. For weft-faced (rugs, tapestry), PPI is much higher; for warp-faced, lower. Take-up on weft is typically 5-10% but can reach 15% for sticky or springy yarns. Always wind a little extra; the last shuttle of a project is the worst time to run out.

Yarn Weight Categories (CYC)TAB. 2T-1

Wt #	Category	WPI	Knit Gauge / 4"	Needle (mm)	Typical Use
0	Lace / Thread	35+	33-40	1.5-2.25	Lace knitting, fine crochet, thread weaving.
1	Super Fine (sock, fingering)	19-22	27-32	2.25-3.25	Socks, shawls, baby items, fine weaving.
2	Fine (sport)	15-18	23-26	3.25-3.75	Light garments, baby blankets.
3	Light (DK)	12-14	21-24	3.75-4.5	DK garments; most common European weight.
4	Medium (worsted, aran)	9-11	16-20	4.5-5.5	Sweaters, blankets; most common US weight.
5	Bulky (chunky)	6-8	12-15	5.5-8	Outerwear, fast-knit projects.
6	Super Bulky	5-6	7-11	8-12.75	Roving, heavy outerwear.
7	Jumbo	<5	<7	12.75+	Arm-knit, oversize statement work.

Craft Yarn Council standard. WPI guides cross-system comparison: a "worsted weight" 4-ply at 9 WPI is a different yarn from "worsted weight" singles at 11 WPI even if both are CYC 4. Sample the gauge or wraps; don't trust the ball band.

Natural Fiber ReferenceTAB. 2T-2

Fiber	Source	Staple	Strength	Dye	Notes
Cotton	seed (cellulose)	0.5-2.5 in	weaker wet	reactive, direct	Most common cellulose; mercerization adds shine and strength.
Linen (flax)	bast (cellulose)	12-36 in	stronger wet	reactive	Crisp hand, low elasticity, wrinkles. Strengthens with washing.
Hemp	bast (cellulose)	3-15 ft	very strong	reactive	Linen-like but coarser; very durable. Strong sail and rope tradition.
Ramie	bast (cellulose)	6-24 in	strong	reactive	White, linen-like luster, stiff. Used pure or blended.
Wool	sheep (protein)	2-15 in	moderate	acid	Scaled fibers full and felt; elastic and warm.
Alpaca	camelid (protein)	3-9 in	moderate	acid	Hollow fiber; warmer than wool by weight. Less crimp than wool.
Mohair	goat (protein)	4-12 in	strong	acid	High luster, slick hand. Often blended for shine.
Cashmere	goat down (protein)	1-3 in	weak	acid	Soft, warm, expensive. Combed from undercoat.
Silk	insect (protein)	filament / 0.5-4 in tussah	very strong	acid or reactive	Longest natural fiber when reeled. Lustrous; takes dye brilliantly.

Bast fibers (linen, hemp, ramie) come from stems and need retting. Seed fibers (cotton) come from boll. Protein fibers (wool, silk) take acid dye and felt; cellulose fibers take reactive dye and don't felt. Match dye chemistry to fiber type.

Common Yarn SettsTAB. 2T-3

Yarn	YPP	WPI	Plain	Twill
8/2 Cotton	3360	18-20	20-24 EPI	24-30 EPI
10/2 Cotton (pearl)	4200	22-24	24-30 EPI	30-36 EPI
20/2 Cotton	8400	30-34	30-36 EPI	36-40 EPI
8/4 Cotton (rug warp)	1600	10-12	10-12 EPI	12-15 EPI
3/2 Pearl Cotton	1260	10-12	10-12 EPI	12-15 EPI
5/2 Pearl Cotton	2100	14-16	14-16 EPI	16-20 EPI
Worsted wool (~1800 ypp)	1800	12-14	12-14 EPI	14-18 EPI
Sport wool (~1300 ypp)	1300	10-12	10-12 EPI	12-15 EPI
DK wool (~1000 ypp)	1000	8-10	8-10 EPI	10-12 EPI
10/2 Linen	2960	18-20	20-24 EPI	24-28 EPI
Singles linen 14 lea	4200	22-24	24-28 EPI	28-32 EPI

Linen sets sleyer (more EPI) than cotton or wool at similar size because of its smooth surface and lack of grip. Singles vs plied at same size: singles set slightly sleyer than plied because they pack closer.

Weave StructuresTAB. 2T-4

Structure	Float Length	Shafts	Drape	Notes
Plain (tabby)	1	2	stiff	Simplest, strongest, balanced. The default for many projects.
Basket (2×2)	2	2	softer	Pairs of warps and wefts grouped. Softer than plain, slight texture.
2/2 Twill	2	4	fluid	Diagonal line. Standard cloth weave. Many variants: M's and W's, herringbone, bird's-eye.
3/1 Twill	3	4	fluid one face	Warp-faced or weft-faced. Used in denim.
Satin (5-shaft)	4-7	5-8	drape, slick	Long floats give shine and drape. Snags easily.
Huck lace	3-5	4-8	open	Plain-weave ground with float blocks. Open in finishing.
Overshot	long pattern	4	decorative	Pattern weft floats over tabby ground. Classic American coverlet structure.
Double weave	—	4-8	thick	Two layers; can be opened into a tube or pocket.

Longer floats = more drape and shine, but more snag risk and lower abrasion resistance. Match structure to use: tabby for towels, twill for clothing, satin for special-occasion fabric, overshot for display textiles.

Reed and SleyingTAB. 2T-5

Reed	Sleying	Resulting EPI	Use
5 dent	1, 2, 3 per dent	5, 10, 15	Rug warp, very heavy yarn.
6 dent	1, 2, 3 per dent	6, 12, 18	Rug, blankets.
8 dent	1, 2, 3 per dent	8, 16, 24	The workhorse reed.
10 dent	1, 2, 3 per dent	10, 20, 30	Fine cotton, medium wool.
12 dent	1, 2, 3 per dent	12, 24, 36	Fine work.
15 dent	1, 2 per dent	15, 30	Very fine, linen.
20 dent	1, 2 per dent	20, 40	Specialty, very fine silk or linen.

A versatile shop has 8, 10, and 12 dent reeds; from those you can sley uneven to hit nearly any EPI. Sleying 2-1-2-1 in an 8-dent gives 12 EPI; 1-1-2 in a 10-dent gives 13.3 average.

Section 2U Mechanical

Sewing and Patternmaking

Seam allowances, stitch types, machine needle and thread pairing, fabric weight reference, ease percentages, and pattern symbol notation. Centered on woven and knit garments and soft-goods construction.

Fabric Weight ↔ GSM ConverterTOOL 2U-1

GSM (g/m²)

or oz/yd² (US)

or oz/sq.ft

GSM—

oz/yd² (US)—

oz/sq.ft—

Category—

Suggested Needle—

Stitch Length—

1 oz/yd² ≈ 33.91 g/m². Fabric weight is the single best predictor of needle size and stitch length. Sample on a scrap of your specific fabric; results vary with weave density and finish.

Fabric Weight CategoriesTAB. 2U-1

Category	GSM	oz/yd²	Examples	Use
Sheer	<50	<1.5	Chiffon, organza, gauze, georgette.	Overlays, scarves, fine linings.
Very light	50-100	1.5-3	Voile, batiste, lawn, fine silk.	Shirting, summer blouses.
Light	100-150	3-4.5	Poplin, broadcloth, light shirting, T-shirt knit.	Shirts, light dresses, lining.
Medium	150-225	4.5-6.5	Cotton twill, linen, light denim, midweight knit.	Pants, skirts, jackets, most dresses.
Heavy	225-340	6.5-10	Denim, canvas, drill, terry, heavy knit, melton.	Jeans, work clothes, jackets, bags.
Bottomweight	340-500	10-15	Heavy canvas, duck, upholstery.	Outerwear, bags, slipcovers.
Upholstery / Heavy	500+	15+	Heavy upholstery, sailcloth.	Soft goods, furniture, sails.

Seam Allowance ConventionsTAB. 2U-2

Convention	SA	Use
US home sewing (Big 4)	5/8" (1.5 cm)	McCall's, Simplicity, Butterick, Vogue patterns. Allows easy alteration.
European home / indie	3/8" or 1 cm	Burda, Marfy, many independent pattern makers. Tighter, easier curves.
Industry / RTW	3/8" (1 cm)	Most ready-to-wear factory standard. Less waste.
Knit / overlock	1/4" (6 mm)	Trimmed by serger or coverstitch. Stretch seams.
Bag-making	3/8" or 1/2"	Sturdy seams, often topstitched. 1/2" (1.27 cm) for heavy canvas.
Underwear / lingerie	1/4" (6 mm)	Tight curves, fine fabrics. Usually with stretch stitch.
Quilting (piecing)	1/4" (6 mm)	Standard quilter's 1/4". Some block math assumes "scant" 1/4" to account for thread bulk.
Tailored / couture	1" (2.5 cm)	Tailored side seams, jackets. Allows fit changes through wearing.
Hems (general)	1-3" (2.5-7.5 cm)	1" plain straight hem; 2-3" for tailored or flared hems.

When grading a pattern between sizes, the SA stays constant — you grade the stitch line, not the cutting line. Most patterns include SA; couture patterns often do not, so you add it on the cloth.

Machine Needle ReferenceTAB. 2U-3

Needle	Sizes (EU / US)	Tip	Use
Universal	60/8 - 110/18	slight ball	Default; wovens and most fabrics where you don't have a more specific option.
Microtex / Sharps	60/8 - 90/14	very sharp	Microfiber, silk, fine woven; precise straight stitching, topstitching.
Jersey / Ballpoint	70/10 - 100/16	medium ball	Knits, interlock. The ball pushes between yarns rather than piercing them.
Stretch	75/11, 90/14	medium ball, special scarf	Highly elastic knits, spandex blends; reduces skipped stitches.
Denim / Jeans	90/14 - 110/18	strong sharp	Denim, canvas, leather-look vinyl, multiple layers.
Leather	80/12 - 110/18	chisel / wedge	Real leather and vinyl. Don't use on woven cloth — tears yarns.
Topstitch	80/12 - 100/16	universal sharp, large eye	Thick decorative thread; the eye accepts twin or heavy thread without shredding.
Embroidery	75/11, 90/14	light ball, large eye, smooth shaft	Rayon and polyester embroidery threads; prevents shredding at speed.
Quilting	75/11, 90/14	tapered sharp	Through multiple layers and batting without deflection.
Twin	2.0/80 - 6.0/100	varies	Parallel rows, hemming knits with stretch.

Needle size in the EU number is the shaft diameter in hundredths of a millimeter (80 = 0.80 mm); the US number is a relative scale. Use the smallest needle that won't deflect or skip — bigger holes mean more visible holes and more fabric damage.

Stitch Type ReferenceTAB. 2U-4

Stitch	Use	Notes
Lockstitch (straight)	Standard seam, woven fabrics.	Two threads, top and bobbin; non-stretch.
Zigzag	Edge finish, applique, narrow.	Slight stretch; coarser at higher width.
Triple straight (lightning)	Stretch seams without serger.	Stitches forward 2, back 1; built-in stretch.
Overlock (3-thread)	Edge finish on wovens, light knit seams.	Two needles, two loopers; serger.
Overlock (4-thread)	Knit seams with finish.	Stronger than 3-thread; serger.
Coverstitch	Hems on knits.	Two needles top, looper bottom; flat stretch hem.
Topstitch	Visible structural + decorative.	Stitch length 3-4 mm. Often heavier thread.
Edgestitch	Very close to edge or seam.	1/16" from edge. Holds facings, lapped seams.
French seam	Enclosed seam for sheers.	Sew wrong-sides 1/4", trim, fold and sew right-sides 3/8".
Flat-felled	Reinforced flat seam.	Jeans, work shirts; both sides clean.
Hong Kong finish	Bias-bound seam allowance.	Couture finish, unlined garments.
Blind hem	Invisible hem.	Machine or hand; catches one or two threads of garment.
Bartack	Reinforce stress points.	Pocket corners, belt loops; dense zigzag.

Ease ReferenceTAB. 2U-5

Fit	Bust Ease	Hip Ease	Type
Negative (bodycon, swim)	−2 to −4"	−2 to −4"	Stretch fabrics only.
Zero / close-fitting	0 to 1"	0 to 1"	Stretch wovens, fitted shirts.
Fitted	2-3"	2-3"	Tailored shirts, fitted dresses.
Semi-fitted	3-4"	3-4"	Most ready-to-wear shirts and dresses.
Loose	5-8"	5-8"	Relaxed shirts, jackets over light layers.
Very loose	8"+	8"+	Outerwear, oversize, kimono cuts.

"Wearing ease" is the minimum you need to breathe and move (typically 2-3" at bust, 2" at hip, 1" at waist). "Design ease" is the additional ease for the silhouette you want. Knits use less ease; stretch wovens with spandex are in between.

Pattern SymbolsTAB. 2U-6

Symbol	Meaning	Use
Grainline arrow	Parallel to selvedge	Align with fabric grain for stable, predictable garment.
"Place on fold"	One half of symmetric piece	Fold fabric, place edge on fold; cut yields full piece.
Notch (single, double)	Matching mark	Match single to single, double to double when joining pieces.
Dart legs and apex	Triangular fold	Sew from wide end to apex; tie off, don't backstitch.
Pleat lines (solid + dashed)	Fold solid to dashed	Direction marked; box pleat, knife pleat, inverted pleat.
Gathering symbol (~~~~)	Distribute fullness	Two parallel basting rows; pull bobbin to gather.
Stitch line (dashed)	Actual seam line	If pattern includes SA, stitch line is inside cut line.
Center front / center back	Reference for symmetry	Often the fold line; sometimes the seam line.
Button / buttonhole marks	Placement	Mark on both sides; offset for overlap if any.
Lengthen / shorten line	Where to adjust	Slash and spread or overlap perpendicular to grain.

Section 2V Mechanical

Bookbinding

Signature math, spine width and board sizing, sewing structures, adhesive selection, and cover material reference. Centered on case-bound and limp-bound trade book formats with traditional hand-sewing techniques.

Signature Math CalculatorTOOL 2V-1

Total Pages (incl. blanks)

Sheets per Signature

Imposition

Pages per Sheet—

Pages per Signature—

Number of Signatures—

Total Sheets Required—

Page Count Rounded—

Blank Pages Added—

Page counts must round up to a multiple of (sheets × pages_per_sheet). A 220-page book at 4-sheet octavo (16 pp/sig) needs to round to 224 pages, four pages of blank front/back matter. Hand binders typically use folio for art books and 4-sheet octavo signatures for trade books.

Spine Width CalculatorTOOL 2V-2

Page Count

Paper Weight (GSM)

Bulk Factor (cm³/g)

Signature Sewing Swell (mm)

Endpaper Allowance (mm)

Sheets (pages / 2)—

Paper Thickness per Sheet—

Page Block Thickness—

Spine Width (mm)—

Spine Width (in)—

Paper thickness per sheet ≈ GSM × bulk / 1000 mm. Bulk varies by paper: thin bible paper bulk = 0.9; standard offset = 1.20-1.30; uncoated book papers up to 1.5-2.0. Add ~1-2 mm for sewing swell on hand-sewn signatures, and 0.5-1 mm for endpapers. Manufacturer's spec is more reliable than the formula — request a paper sample and measure 100 sheets stacked under standard pressure.

Cover Board DimensionsTOOL 2V-3

Page Width (mm)

Page Height (mm)

Square Overhang (mm)

Spine Width (mm)

Cover Material Turn-in (mm)

Joint Gap (mm)

Cover Board Size—

Spine Inlay (paper or board)—

Cover Material Cut Size—

Square overhang (the "square") is the cover board sticking out past the page block, typically 3 mm (1/8"). Joint gap is the space between cover board and spine where the case hinges, typically 6-8 mm for case-bound. Cover material adds turn-in (the wrap around the inside edge, 15 mm typical) plus a slight overlap at the spine.

Sewing StructuresTAB. 2V-1

Structure	Use	Notes
Pamphlet stitch	Thin books, single signature.	3-hole, 5-hole; book is one folded signature only.
Kettle stitch	Multi-signature standard.	Loops between signatures at head and tail; bookbinder's workhorse.
Long stitch	Limp-cover binding.	Signatures sewn directly through the cover. Exposed-spine look.
Coptic	Lay-flat exposed-spine.	Chain stitch between boards. Opens fully flat. Historical.
French link	Decorative on sewing frame.	Each signature sewn around tapes or cords; loops link visually.
Sewn on tapes	Case-bound trade books.	Linen tapes anchor signatures to the case. Standard hardcover construction.
Sewn on cords	Traditional leather binding.	Hemp or linen cords raised on the spine; classic leather-bound look.
Stab / Japanese	Side-stitched soft binding.	Cannot open flat; works for loose sheets. Yotsume toji is the standard four-hole pattern.

Adhesive ReferenceTAB. 2V-2

Adhesive	Open Time	Reversible	Use
PVA (polyvinyl acetate)	2-5 min	no (water-resistant when dry)	The bookbinding standard. Strong, flexible, fast. Internal PVA: ~50% solids, used neat or thinned.
Wheat paste	10-20 min	yes	Traditional; slow, gentle on paper. Good for endpapers, paste-downs. Cooked wheat starch + water.
Methyl cellulose (MC)	long	yes	Conservator's adhesive. Fully reversible. Often mixed with PVA to slow open time.
PVA / MC mix (50/50)	5-10 min	partial	Casing-in workhorse. Slip plus strength. Standard tradebook glue.
Animal glue (hide)	1-3 min	yes (heat/water)	Traditional; very strong, reversible, brittle if too thick. Spine lining, old repairs.
EVA hot melt	15-30 sec	no	Trade perfect-binding. Fast, holds well on porous edges.
Polyurethane (PUR)	moisture cure	no	Modern perfect-binding; cleaner than EVA, lays flatter, more durable.

Choose PVA for trade work, wheat paste for archival or reversible joins, MC for paper conservation. PUR is replacing EVA in modern perfect-binding due to better lay-flat and longevity. Test on a scrap before committing; some papers tunnel or curl with high-water adhesives.

Cover Material ReferenceTAB. 2V-3

Material	Properties	Use
Bookcloth (paper-backed)	Cloth laminated to paper; PVA-friendly.	Standard case binding. Iris, Brillianta, Verona are common premium brands.
Bookcloth (acrylic-coated)	Water-resistant; smoother hand.	Library binding, durable case.
Buckram	Heavy cloth, stiff, very durable.	Library editions, reference work.
Linen / Canvas	Plain woven cloth, no backing.	Hand binding; PVA tends to bleed through, paste-back first.
Decorative paper	Many weights, often handmade or block-printed.	Quarter-bindings, paste-downs, slipcases.
Goat leather	Pebbled grain, durable, traditional.	Fine leather binding; "Niger goat", "Oasis" common.
Calfskin	Smooth, fine grain, takes gold tooling.	Premium leather binding; sensitive to humidity.
Bonded leather / faux	PU coating on backing; uniform.	Commercial "leather-look" bindings.

Paper-backed bookcloth is the easiest material to work with: cuts cleanly, takes PVA without bleed-through, and stretches predictably. Save raw linen and leather for projects where the surface character is the point.

Section 2W Mechanical

Paper and Printmaking

Paper weight conversion across US lb categories and ISO GSM, standard sheet sizes, deckle dimensions for hand papermaking, multi-color registration tolerance, and print process reference. Centered on letterpress, relief, intaglio, and screen printing.

Paper Weight ConverterTOOL 2W-1

Source category

Value

GSM—

Bond (lb)—

Text (lb)—

Cover (lb)—

Index (lb)—

Tag (lb)—

Category—

US paper pounds measure 500 sheets of the parent (basis) size. Different paper grades use different basis sizes, so "100 lb cover" (270 GSM) and "100 lb text" (148 GSM) are very different sheets. GSM is the universal metric and worth converting to for sanity. Conversion factors: bond × 3.76 = GSM; text × 1.48 = GSM; cover × 2.70 = GSM; index × 1.81 = GSM; tag × 1.63 = GSM.

Common Paper WeightsTAB. 2W-1

Paper	GSM	Equivalent	Use
Onion skin / bible	30-50	8-13 lb bond	Bibles, dictionaries, draft tracing.
Standard copy / typing	75-90	20-24 lb bond	Office, copier, light printing.
Premium copy / stationery	90-120	24-32 lb bond / 60-80 lb text	Letterhead, lighter book interiors.
Book interior (offset)	70-90	50-60 lb text	Trade paperback, mass market.
Book interior (premium)	100-140	70-90 lb text	Hardcover, fine printing.
Drawing / sketch	90-160	60-90 lb text	Sketchbooks, drawing.
Watercolor (light)	200-300	90-140 lb watercolor	Watercolor, light gouache.
Watercolor (heavy)	300-640	140-300 lb watercolor	Watercolor, gouache; doesn't need stretching above ~300.
Cardstock / cover	200-300	65-110 lb cover	Postcards, business cards, soft covers.
Light board	300-400	110-150 lb cover	Folded cards, packaging, heavy covers.
Printmaking (Rives BFK, Stonehenge)	250-300	115-140 lb cover	Intaglio, relief, lithography.
Letterpress (Crane's Lettra)	110-220	90-220 lb cover	Letterpress; soft cotton holds deep impression.

Standard Sheet SizesTAB. 2W-2

Size	Inches	Millimeters	Region / Use
Letter	8.5 × 11	216 × 279	US office.
Legal	8.5 × 14	216 × 356	US legal documents.
Tabloid / Ledger	11 × 17	279 × 432	US large format; folds to letter.
A4	8.27 × 11.69	210 × 297	ISO worldwide office standard.
A3	11.69 × 16.54	297 × 420	Twice A4; large prints.
A5	5.83 × 8.27	148 × 210	Half A4; pocket notebooks.
B5	6.93 × 9.84	176 × 250	Common book trim.
Trade hardcover	6 × 9	152 × 229	Standard US trade hardback.
Mass paperback	4.25 × 6.87	108 × 175	Rack-size paperback.
Trade paperback (US)	5.5 × 8.5	140 × 216	Common US trade pbk.
Imperial (full sheet)	22 × 30	559 × 762	Watercolor and printmaking full sheet.
Double Elephant	26.75 × 40	680 × 1016	Audubon and large printmaking.

ISO A series scales by √2 — each step halves the area. Tear or fold an A3 to get two A4 sheets. US sizes don't scale this way; they're a legacy patchwork.

Hand Papermaking Mould SizesTAB. 2W-3

Mould Size	Sheet Inside	Tradition	Use
5 × 7"	4.5 × 6.5"	Western	Card, small art print, beginner.
8 × 10"	7.5 × 9.5"	Western	Photo and print presentation.
9 × 12"	8.5 × 11.5"	Western	Letter-size handmade.
11 × 14"	10.5 × 13.5"	Western	Mid-size art, watercolor.
15 × 20"	14.5 × 19.5"	Western	Studio-scale, printmaking.
20 × 30"	19.5 × 29.5"	Western	Imperial-scale handmade.
Tamesuki sugeta	varies	Eastern (washi)	Bamboo screen; sheet thickness controlled by stroke count.

The deckle (frame) sits on the mould (screen). The inside of the deckle defines the wet sheet edge; the deckle itself adds 1/4-1/2" of thickness that gives the characteristic feathered "deckle edge". Eastern (nagashizuki) papermaking uses neri (formation aid) and multiple light coats; Western (hikizuki) uses a single pull.

Multi-Color Registration CalculatorTOOL 2W-2

Per-color tolerance (mm)

Number of colors

Stack model

Stack Tolerance (mm)—

Stack Tolerance (in)—

Recommended Trap—

Assessment—

Statistical (RSS) assumes independent random misregistration per color and gives a realistic worst-likely value; worst-case (linear sum) is the absolute bound. Trap the lighter color into the darker by half the stack tolerance to hide misregistration along color boundaries. Letterpress and screen typically tolerate 0.3-0.5 mm per color; lithography and inkjet typically 0.05-0.15 mm per color.

Print Process ReferenceTAB. 2W-4

Process	Plate / Matrix	Pressure	Registration	Notes
Letterpress	Type, polymer, wood, linoleum (relief)	moderate-high	±0.2-0.5 mm	Raised image inked, paper pressed against type. Deep impression on soft paper.
Relief (linocut, woodcut)	Linoleum, wood	moderate	±0.5-1 mm	Hand-burnished or pressed. Reduction prints carve and reprint same block.
Intaglio (etching, engraving)	Copper, zinc, polymer	high (press)	±0.2-0.5 mm	Recessed image holds ink; surface wiped clean. Plate-mark embossed in paper.
Lithography (stone or plate)	Limestone, aluminum plate	moderate	±0.1-0.3 mm	Planographic; chemistry distinguishes ink-receiving from water-receiving areas.
Screen / serigraphy	Mesh on frame, photo or stencil	squeegee	±0.3-0.5 mm	Push ink through open mesh. Solid color layers; mesh count sets detail.
Monotype	Smooth plate (acrylic, glass)	moderate	n/a (one-off)	Paint or roll on plate, transfer once. No edition.
Woodblock (Japanese)	Carved cherry block	baren (hand)	±0.2-0.4 mm	Water-based ink, dampened paper, kento registration marks.
Cyanotype / alt photo	Sensitized paper, contact neg	UV exposure	n/a (contact)	Sun-printed; characteristic Prussian blue.

Letterpress and screen are the most forgiving for multi-color hand-registered work. Intaglio and lithography demand more registration discipline but reward it with finer detail.

Screen Mesh ReferenceTAB. 2W-5

Mesh Count	Use	Ink	Detail
40-80	Heavy deposit, textiles, glitter / specialty inks	thick	coarse
110-130	General textile, light colors on dark fabric	plastisol, opaque	medium
156	Standard textile, general purpose	plastisol, water-based	medium
200-230	Fine textile detail, halftones up to 45 lpi	water-based	fine
280-305	Halftones 55-65 lpi, paper printing	UV, fine water-based	very fine
355+	High-detail graphic, photo halftones 65-85 lpi	UV, low-viscosity	photographic

Mesh count is threads per inch. Higher count = finer detail but less ink deposit. For textile work on dark fabrics, lower count (110-156) gives the opacity you need. For paper graphics, higher count (200-305) gives the detail.

Section 2X Mechanical

Adhesives

A unified reference for adhesives across materials, pulling together the wood, leather, bookbinding, and metal-bonding notes scattered elsewhere. Covers selection, substrate compatibility, working times, and surface preparation. Includes epoxy, PVA wood glue, cyanoacrylate (CA) super glue, polyurethane (Gorilla Glue), contact cement, silicone, construction adhesive, hot melt, methacrylate (MMA), and anaerobic threadlockers (Loctite). For two-part products, includes a mixing ratio calculator.

Adhesive Family OverviewFIG. 2X-1

Adhesives are characterized by their chemistry (which determines cure mechanism), open time (working window before tack), clamp time (until handling strength), and full cure (until full strength). Match the adhesive to the substrate, the joint geometry, the service environment, and the assembly cadence.

Substrate Compatibility MatrixTAB. 2X-1

Adhesive	Wood	Metal	Plastic	Glass	Rubber	Fabric	Leather
PVA (wood glue)	★★★	—	—	—	—	★	★
CA (super glue)	★★	★★	★★	★	★	★	★★
Epoxy (general)	★★★	★★★	★★	★★★	★	★	★★
Polyurethane (Gorilla)	★★★	★★	★★	★★	★★	★★	★★
Contact cement	★★★	★★	★★★	—	★★★	★★	★★★
Silicone (RTV)	★	★★	★★	★★★	★★★	★	★
Construction (PL Premium)	★★★	★★	★★	★	★	—	—
Hot melt (EVA)	★★	★	★★	—	★	★★	★★
Methacrylate (MMA)	★★	★★★	★★★	★★	—	—	—
Anaerobic (Loctite)	—	★★★	—	—	—	—	—
Spray adhesive (3M 77)	★	★	★★	—	★	★★	★★
Wheat paste / MC	★	—	—	—	—	★★	—

★★★ excellent, ★★ good, ★ acceptable, — not recommended. Plastics vary widely: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and PTFE resist most adhesives without surface treatment (flame, corona, or specific primers). When in doubt, test on scrap of the actual material.

Two-Part Mixing CalculatorTOOL 2X-1

Mix ratio (A : B)

Custom ratio A

Custom ratio B

Total amount needed (g or mL)

Ratio basis

Effective ratio—

Part A—

Part B—

Mix waste (10%)—

Mix with waste—

Always confirm the manufacturer's published ratio; epoxies in particular use different ratios across product lines and resin/hardener combinations. By weight is more reliable than by volume because the two parts can have different densities. Mix slightly more than needed; under-mixed corners cure soft.

Working Time & Cure ReferenceTAB. 2X-2

Adhesive	Open Time	Clamp Time	Full Cure	Temp Range
PVA Type I (interior)	5-10 min	30-60 min	24 hr	15-30°C
PVA Type II (water-res)	5 min	30-60 min	24 hr	15-30°C
PVA Type III (waterproof, Titebond III)	8-10 min	30-60 min	24 hr	10-30°C
Hide glue (hot)	~60 sec	2-4 hr	overnight	60-65°C apply
Liquid hide glue	10 min	overnight	24 hr	15-30°C
CA thin	5-10 sec	30 sec	24 hr	10-30°C
CA gel	20-60 sec	2-5 min	24 hr	10-30°C
Epoxy (5-min)	3-4 min	15-20 min	1-3 hr	15-30°C
Epoxy (30-min)	20-25 min	1-2 hr	8-24 hr	15-30°C
Epoxy (slow / structural)	2-4 hr	8-12 hr	24-72 hr	15-30°C
Polyurethane (Gorilla)	15-20 min	1-2 hr	24 hr	10-30°C
Contact cement	flash 10-15 min	instant (after flash)	24 hr	15-30°C
Silicone RTV	skins in 5-10 min	n/a	24 hr / 3 mm	5-40°C
Construction (PL)	15-30 min	24 hr	7 days	5-40°C
Hot melt	5-30 sec	30-60 sec	5 min	apply 150-200°C
Methacrylate (MMA)	4-30 min	15 min - 2 hr	24 hr	15-30°C
Anaerobic (Loctite 242)	10 min handling	6 hr	24 hr	cure on metal only

Open time is how long after application the adhesive remains workable. Clamp time is how long to apply pressure before the joint can be handled. Full cure is when the joint reaches design strength. Cold rooms double cure times; heated assembly is the fastest way to recover schedule.

CA (Cyanoacrylate) ReferenceTAB. 2X-3

Viscosity	Gap	Use
Thin (water-like)	≤0.05 mm	Wicks into tight joints; instant grab. Tacking and assembly.
Medium	0.05-0.15 mm	General purpose; slightly more open time, fills minor gaps.
Thick	0.15-0.5 mm	Vertical surfaces, larger gaps, more positioning time.
Gel	up to 1 mm	Won't drip; positions before cure. Good on vertical and overhead.
Foam-safe / odorless	varies	EPS / EPP foam, photos, fabrics. Reduced solvent emission.
Black / toughened	varies	Carbon-filled or rubber-toughened; better shock resistance.

CA cures with moisture. Accelerator (kicker) cures it instantly but reduces ultimate strength by ~30%; reserve for tacking and use sparingly. Debond with acetone (or commercial CA debonder). Skin contact: leave it, peel naturally; force separation tears skin. Eye contact is an emergency, irrigate and seek care.

Surface PreparationTAB. 2X-4

Substrate	Clean	Abrade	Prime / Note
Wood (most)	Vacuum, dry	Fresh-sawn or 80-120 grit	Avoid oily woods (teak, ipe) — wipe with acetone just before glue.
Wood (oily / dense)	Acetone wipe	Fresh surface within 15 min	Teak, rosewood, cocobolo: epoxy is more forgiving than PVA.
Aluminum	Acetone, then alkaline cleaner	Sand or abrade with 80-120 grit	Bonds within hours of preparation; oxide reforms quickly.
Steel	Degrease (acetone, IPA)	Sand or wire brush; remove mill scale	For epoxy: bond within hours. Phosphate primer extends window.
Stainless	Degrease + alkaline etch	Sand 120 grit	Passivation layer resists adhesion; mechanical key + epoxy.
Polyethylene / Polypropylene	Wipe IPA	—	Flame, corona, or plasma treat. Or use 3M DP-8005 / Loctite 401 with PE primer.
PTFE	—	—	Etch with sodium-naphthalene before any adhesive bond.
Acrylic / Polycarbonate	IPA wipe	—	Solvent welding (MEK, methylene chloride) for acrylic-to-acrylic. Cyanoacrylate also works.
Glass	Solvent clean, then water rinse	—	Silane primer for epoxy or silicone on permanent bonds.
Rubber (EPDM, neoprene)	Cleaning solvent	Light abrasion	Use rubber-specific contact cement or methacrylate.

Clean removes contaminants; abrade increases surface area and removes weak boundary layers. The 30-minute rule: most bonds are strongest within 30 minutes of surface preparation. Wear gloves after preparation to avoid skin oils.

Joint Geometry & StrengthTAB. 2X-5

Joint	Strength	Notes
Lap (overlapped)	★★★	Bond area scales linearly with overlap. Most efficient simple joint.
Scarf (angled overlap)	★★★	Smooth load transfer; 8:1 to 12:1 scarf for structural wood/composite.
Finger / box joint	★★★	Mechanically interlocked; very high bond area in wood.
Tongue and groove	★★	Glue area in shear; good for panel edges.
Butt (end-grain)	★	Weakest joint in wood; end grain wicks glue and starves bond.
Butt (long-grain)	★★★	Standard panel glue-up; well-clamped butts approach wood strength.
Mortise and tenon	★★★	Long-grain shoulders; mechanical strength plus large glue area.
Dovetail	★★★	Mechanically locked one direction; very strong with glue.
Beveled / chamfered butt	★★	Increases bond area without complex joinery.
Peel (load perpendicular)	★	Weakest loading direction for any adhesive; design lap or shear instead.

Adhesive joints are strongest in shear, then tension, then peel. Design joint geometry so service loads put the bond in shear. A 25 mm lap joint can be stronger than the parent material in many cases; a butt joint loaded in peel is the weakest possible configuration.

Threadlocker (Anaerobic) ReferenceTAB. 2X-6

Grade	Color	Strength	Use
Loctite 222	purple	low (~6 Nm)	Small screws (≤6 mm) that may need adjustment. Set screws.
Loctite 242	blue	medium (~10 Nm)	The shop default. Hand-tools remove; reusable assemblies.
Loctite 243	blue	medium (~10 Nm)	Oil-tolerant version of 242. Most automotive.
Loctite 263	red	high (~30 Nm)	Heavy-duty; permanent unless heated to 250°C+ for removal.
Loctite 271 / 277	red	high (~30 Nm)	Permanent; structural studs, bearings, large bolts.
Loctite 290	green	wicking high	Penetrating; secures pre-assembled fasteners.

Anaerobic adhesives cure only in the absence of air AND in contact with metal ions (iron, copper, brass). Stainless and aluminum are "inactive surfaces" needing a primer (Loctite 7649). Threadlocker is a fastener treatment, not a structural adhesive — apply 1-2 drops on the male thread only.

Section 2Y Mechanical

Finishes

A unified reference for paints, varnishes, oils, dyes, stains, and waxes across wood, metal, leather, and craft surfaces. Pulls together the wood-finish notes from 2M, the leather-edge finishes from 2R, and the ceramic glaze reference from 2S into a single selection guide. Covers tung oil, linseed oil (BLO), hard wax oil (Osmo, Rubio), shellac, nitrocellulose lacquer, polyurethane, spar varnish, conversion varnish, latex and alkyd paint, milk paint, paste wax, plus metal finishes including powder coat, anodizing, bluing, parkerizing, black oxide, and patinas. Includes a coverage calculator.

Finish Family OverviewFIG. 2Y-1

Finishes are characterized by their chemistry (which determines the cure mechanism and removability), the build (penetrating vs film-forming), the appearance (sheen, color, clarity), and the service environment (UV, water, abrasion, food contact). Match to use case before chemistry.

Wood Finish Selection GuideTAB. 2Y-1

Finish	Type	Look	Durability	Reversible	Use
Pure tung oil	penetrating	natural, slight darken	medium	recoat any time	Outdoor furniture, fine touch, food contact when fully cured.
Pure linseed oil (BLO)	penetrating	warm amber	low	recoat any time	Tool handles, traditional furniture; slow cure, multiple coats.
Danish / Watco oil	oil + varnish wipe-on	natural, low sheen	medium	partially	Furniture; easy application, simple repair.
Hard wax oil (Osmo, Rubio Monocoat)	oil + wax film	natural to satin	high	spot repair	Floors, dining tables, kitchen surfaces.
Shellac	film (alcohol)	warm amber to blonde	medium	denatured alcohol	Interior furniture, sealing coat, French polish.
Nitrocellulose lacquer	film (solvent)	clear to amber	medium	lacquer thinner	Production furniture, instruments, guitars.
Pre-cat / post-cat lacquer	film (solvent + catalyst)	clear to amber	high	not easily	Commercial furniture, kitchen cabinets.
Oil-based polyurethane	film (alkyd)	amber, builds film	very high	strip required	Floors, tabletops, exterior trim.
Water-based polyurethane	film (acrylic)	clear, less amber	high	strip required	Floors, light woods where amber is unwanted.
Spar varnish	film (long-oil alkyd)	amber	high outdoor	strip	Outdoor furniture, boats; flexes with moisture.
Conversion varnish	film (catalyzed)	clear	very high	no	Commercial cabinetry; durable, requires HVLP.
Paste wax	topcoat or standalone	satin, soft glow	low	solvent	Patina maintenance, antique repair, light protection.
Milk paint	film (casein)	matte, vintage	medium	solvent	Traditional country furniture, period reproduction.

"Food safe" applies to most finishes once fully cured. Pure oils (tung, linseed, walnut) are commonly cited as food-safe; commercial film finishes also become inert at full cure. Cure (chemical completion) takes 14-30 days even when the surface feels dry in hours.

Stains, Dyes, and ColorTAB. 2Y-2

Colorant	Vehicle	Penetration	Lightfast	Notes
Pigment stain (oil-based)	oil + pigment + binder	shallow	good	Lodges in pores, accents grain. Forgiving to apply.
Pigment stain (water-based)	water + pigment + binder	shallow	good	Raises grain; sand off raised fibers between coats.
Dye (water-based)	water + dye	deep	fair-good	Aniline or modern; bright, clear colors. Raises grain.
Dye (alcohol-based)	denatured alcohol	deep	fair-good	Fast-drying; spray or wipe. Compatible with shellac.
Dye (oil-based)	mineral spirits	deep	fair-good	Slower dry; compatible with oil finishes.
Gel stain	thick pigment + alkyd	very shallow	good	Won't drip; even color on splotchy woods (pine, cherry).
Chemical stain	chemical reaction	deep	permanent	Iron acetate, ammonia fume, lye. Reacts with wood tannins; very lightfast.
Toner (sprayed)	finish + colorant	surface	good	Colors the finish coat, not the wood. Layered grading.

Dye penetrates and colors the fiber; pigment lodges in pores and on the surface. Dyes give clear, intense color but fade; pigments give muted color but resist fading. Combination is common: dye for color, pigment for grain accent. Test on scrap before committing.

Coverage CalculatorTOOL 2Y-1

Finish type

Custom coverage (sq ft/gal)

Surface area

Area units

Coats

Coverage rate—

Area (sq ft)—

Per coat—

Total (gallons)—

Total (liters)—

With 15% waste—

First coat on raw, porous wood absorbs more (figure 70-80% of nominal coverage). Subsequent coats sit closer to the rated coverage. Wipe-on and spray coverage varies widely with technique; brush gives most predictable application.

Sheen ReferenceTAB. 2Y-3

Sheen	Gloss @ 60°	Look	Use
Flat / matte	0-10	No reflection, dead surface	Walls (hides texture), photography backdrops, art frames.
Eggshell	10-25	Soft sheen, hint of reflection	Living-room walls, traditional furniture.
Satin	25-40	Soft glow, even reflection	Furniture, cabinets, trim, doors.
Semi-gloss	40-70	Clear reflection	Doors, trim, bathroom, kitchen cabinets.
Gloss	70-85	Sharp reflection	High-touch surfaces, period pieces, instruments.
High gloss	85+	Mirror-like	Pianos, fine cars, French polish at peak.

Final sheen depends on the topcoat only; underlying coats don't matter for appearance once buried. Higher sheen amplifies any surface imperfection; flat hides minor flaws. Sand between coats with the same grit you'd use for the next surface flatness, typically 320-400 on satin work.

Metal FinishesTAB. 2Y-4

Finish	Process	Color / Look	Use
Bare polish	mechanical grit progression	bright metallic	Show pieces; needs ongoing wax or clear coat.
Brushed / satin	uniform mechanical scratch	satin metallic	Architectural, appliance, kitchen.
Powder coat	electrostatic + bake	any RAL color	Tough, durable, broad palette. Production standard.
Anodize (Type II)	electrochemical oxide	clear or dyed, decorative	Aluminum; common consumer / electronics. Thin (5-25 µm).
Anodize (Type III, hardcoat)	thicker oxide, denser	gray to black natural	Aluminum; wear surfaces, firearms. Thick (25-100 µm).
Bluing (cold)	selenium acid	blue-black	Steel touch-up, repairs.
Bluing (hot caustic)	boiling caustic salts	deep blue-black	Firearm steel; durable, traditional.
Parkerizing	phosphate conversion	matte gray	Military, firearms. Holds oil.
Black oxide	chemical conversion	black	Tools, fasteners; dimensional accuracy preserved.
Zinc plate (clear / yellow)	electroplating	silver / gold tint	Corrosion protection; common fastener finish.
Nickel plate	electroplating	warm silver	Decorative + corrosion; matte or bright.
Chrome plate	electroplating (over nickel)	blue-white	Automotive, plumbing, decorative.
Brass patina (liver of sulfur)	chemical	brown to black	Antique reproduction, jewelry. Seal with wax.
Copper patina (ammonia, salt)	chemical / weathering	green / blue-green	Architectural, art, traditional roof.

Finishing Schedule (typical wood)TAB. 2Y-5

Step	Grit / Material	Notes
Rough sand	80-120 grit	Remove mill marks, planer ripples, plane to flat.
Intermediate sand	150-180 grit	Remove 100-grit scratches, smooth surface.
Final pre-finish sand	180-220 grit	Standard stopping point for most film finishes.
Final for oil / wax	220-320 grit	Penetrating finishes show scratches; finer sand.
Wet-sand grain raise (water-based)	damp rag, then 220	Raises fibers; sand off before final finish.
Apply stain / dye	brush, wipe, spray	Test on scrap. Allow full dry per product.
Seal coat	shellac (1-lb) or sanding sealer	Locks color, eases sanding of topcoat.
First topcoat	per manufacturer	Thin coat to wet the surface evenly.
Sand between coats	320-400 grit	De-nib only; not to flatten further.
Topcoats (2-4)	per manufacturer	Each coat thin; build comes from coat count, not coat thickness.
Final rub (optional)	600-2000 grit + wax	For glossy finishes; rub to consistent sheen.

Most finishing problems trace to dust, contamination, or insufficient dry time between coats. Vacuum and tack-rag between every stage. Apply finishes in a dust-controlled space; an enclosed corner of the shop is sufficient.

Section 2Z Mechanical

Composites

Fiber-reinforced polymer reference for hand-layup and small-shop work. Covers fiberglass (E-glass, S-glass), carbon fiber, Kevlar / aramid, basalt, and natural-fiber reinforcements with epoxy, polyester, and vinyl ester resins. Reference for layup processes including hand layup, vacuum bag, vacuum infusion, prepreg, and resin transfer molding. Core materials including balsa, PVC foam, SAN foam, PMI (Rohacell), Nomex honeycomb. Includes a layup ply calculator and resin estimator.

Reinforcement MaterialsFIG. 2Z-1

Reinforcement carries the load; matrix transfers load between fibers and protects them. Fiber properties are dominant in tension along the fiber direction. Off-axis loading drops strength dramatically; balance fiber orientations to load direction.

Weave & Form ReferenceTAB. 2Z-1

Form	Drape	Strength	Use
Plain weave	poor (resists curves)	balanced	Flat panels, simple curves. Most-used budget reinforcement.
Twill weave (2×2)	good	balanced	Compound curves; classic carbon-fiber look.
Satin weave (4HS, 8HS)	very good	balanced	Tight curves, complex shapes, aerospace.
Unidirectional (UD)	poor	maximum along fiber	Spars, masts, stiffeners. Tape form (50-300 mm wide).
Biaxial (±45)	good	shear / torsion	Shafts, tubes loaded in torsion.
Chopped strand mat (CSM)	excellent	random / lower	Polyester boat hulls, complex shapes. Not compatible with epoxy (binder dissolves slowly).
Woven roving	poor	balanced, heavy	Thick laminates, hull skins. Coarse and economical.
Quadraxial (0/45/90/-45)	fair	quasi-isotropic	One layer gives loads in all directions.

Fabric weights in oz/yd² (US) or g/m² (everywhere else). 1 oz/yd² ≈ 34 g/m². Common: 4 oz (136 g/m²) light fiberglass, 5.7 oz (193 g/m²) the workhorse cloth, 10 oz (340 g/m²) structural, 24 oz (815 g/m²) roving.

Resin / Matrix ReferenceTAB. 2Z-2

Resin	Properties	Pot Life @ 20°C	Compatible Fibers	Use
Polyester (orthophthalic)	cheap, brittle, smells	15-30 min	fiberglass	Boat hulls, RV bodies, tooling. The budget resin.
Polyester (isophthalic)	better water res. than ortho	15-30 min	fiberglass	Marine, gel coat substrate.
Vinyl ester	better than poly; less than epoxy	15-45 min	fiberglass, carbon	Marine, chemical tanks, mid-grade structural.
Epoxy (laminating, slow)	strong, tough, low shrink	2-4 hr	all fibers	Large layups, infusion, structural work.
Epoxy (laminating, fast)	strong, tough	15-45 min	all fibers	Hand layup, repairs, smaller parts.
Epoxy (infusion)	very low viscosity	2-8 hr	all fibers	Vacuum infusion; long pot life.
Epoxy (paste / putty)	thick, gap-filling	15-90 min	fillers	Fillets, fairing, secondary bonding.
Prepreg epoxy	pre-impregnated	weeks (frozen)	all fibers	High-performance; needs autoclave or heated cure.
Polyurethane casting	flexible, fast	2-30 min	chopped fiber	Molds, prototypes, soft parts.

Epoxy is the most-used small-shop resin. Polyester is acceptable for fiberglass-only work where cost matters. Pot life is heavily temperature-dependent: a 30-minute pot life at 25°C drops to 10-15 minutes at 35°C; doubles at 15°C. Mix only what you can use in half the pot life.

Layup Ply CalculatorTOOL 2Z-1

Fabric weight

Custom weight (g/m²)

Custom fiber density (kg/m³)

Target laminate thickness (mm)

Process / fiber volume fraction

Cured ply thickness—

Plies for target—

Achieved thickness—

Fiber volume fraction—

Cured ply thickness ≈ (fabric_g/m² / fiber_density_kg/m³) / Vf, with fiber density ~2540 kg/m³ for E-glass and ~1800 for carbon. Vf (fiber volume fraction) is the key process variable: hand layup wets out roughly 35-40% fiber by volume; vacuum and infusion push that to 50-55%; prepreg autoclave 60%+. Higher Vf = thinner, stiffer, stronger.

Resin Quantity CalculatorTOOL 2Z-2

Fabric weight (g/m²)

Surface area (m²)

Plies

Process

Total Fabric Mass—

Resin Mass Required—

Resin Volume—

With 25% layup waste—

Process notes—

Resin density is ~1.10 g/mL for most epoxies and ~1.05 for polyester. Hand layup wastes ~25% to brushes, rollers, mixing vessels, and over-application; infusion and prepreg are far more efficient. Always mix the calculated amount plus 10-15% reserve in case of slow saturation.

Layup Process ReferenceTAB. 2Z-3

Process	Vf	Equipment	Use
Hand layup (wet)	0.35-0.40	brushes, rollers	Repairs, boat hulls, simple parts. Lowest barrier.
Vacuum bag	0.45-0.55	pump, bag film, breather	Better Vf, surface, consistency. Single-sided tool.
Vacuum infusion	0.50-0.60	pump, infusion lines, peel ply	Large parts, single shot. No fiber-volume guesswork.
Pre-impregnated (prepreg)	0.55-0.65	oven or autoclave	Aerospace, high-performance bike / racing parts.
RTM (resin transfer molding)	0.50-0.60	closed tooling, pressure pot	Production runs; symmetric tool.
Compression molding	0.55-0.65	heated press	High-volume SMC, BMC, prepreg.
Filament winding	0.60-0.70	winding mandrel + machine	Pipes, tanks, pressure vessels.
Pultrusion	0.50-0.65	heated die, puller	Continuous structural shapes (channel, rod, tube).

Core MaterialsTAB. 2Z-4

Core	Density (kg/m³)	Properties	Use
End-grain balsa	96-180	strong, absorbs resin, natural	Boat decks, traditional sandwich.
PVC foam (Divinycell, Klegecell)	60-200	closed-cell, water-tolerant	Marine, automotive sandwich.
SAN foam (Corecell)	60-150	tougher than PVC at impact	Marine, racing, high-impact.
PMI foam (Rohacell)	30-300	aerospace grade, temperature stable	Aerospace sandwich panels.
PET foam (Airex)	60-200	recyclable, lower cost than PVC	Wind blades, transport panels.
Honeycomb (Nomex)	30-150	highest stiffness-to-weight	Aerospace floors, race cars.
Honeycomb (aluminum)	30-130	structural, conductive	Aerospace, where flammability matters less than weight.
Plywood (marine, okoume)	450-650	cheap, easy to work, attachment	Boat bulkheads, fittings, transoms.

Sandwich construction separates two thin skins with a low-density core. Bending stiffness scales with the cube of thickness, so a 25 mm core panel can be 25-30× stiffer than a single skin of equal weight. Shear modulus and skin attachment are the key core properties.

Mold Release ReferenceTAB. 2Z-5

Release	Type	Reapply	Use
Carnauba paste wax	wax	every part	Single parts, repairs; cheap and forgiving.
Mold release wax (high-temp)	wax	every 1-3 parts	Tooling waxes (Meguiar's, TR-104). Higher Vmax.
PVA film (mold release)	water-soluble film	every part	Brushed or sprayed over wax for double protection.
Semi-permanent	chemical bond	every 5-20 parts	Frekote, Chemlease, Loctite. Production runs.
Mold release film	plastic film	every part	Flat parts, peel ply, vacuum bag side.
Silicone spray	silicone	every part	Quick release; contaminates parts for painting.

Mold release must completely cover the tool surface; missed spots stick. Wax-then-PVA is the belt-and-suspenders approach for one-off parts. Avoid silicone if the part will later be painted, glued, or have a secondary lamination — silicone migrates and prevents adhesion of nearly everything.

Section 4A Shop & Studio

Jig Design

Principles for locating, supporting, and clamping work pieces; common jig types; material selection; and tolerance stacking. A jig guides the cutter; a fixture holds the work (see 4B for fixturing).

3-2-1 Location PrincipleFIG. 4A-1

Constrain six degrees of freedom with the minimum points: three on the primary datum (controls translation in one axis plus two rotations), two on the secondary (the next translation plus the last rotation), one on the tertiary (the last translation). More contact points than this don't add accuracy — they over-constrain and amplify part variation.

Datum	Points	Constrains	Implementation
Primary	3	1 translation + 2 rotations	Three pads on a face, or a precision-ground plate.
Secondary	2	1 translation + 1 rotation	Two pins or rest buttons on the next reference edge.
Tertiary	1	1 translation	One pin or stop on the remaining edge.

Locate against the largest, flattest surface first. Secondary and tertiary should reference machined or sawn edges, not cast or rough surfaces. Spread location points as widely as possible across the datum; close-spaced points magnify any tilt error.

Jig Type ReferenceTAB. 4A-1

Jig	Function	Key Features
Drilling jig (template)	Guide drill bits to repeatable hole locations.	Hardened bushings, stops at edges, hold-down clamps.
Drilling jig (box)	Encase the part; drill through bushings on multiple faces.	Steel or aluminum shell, replaceable bushings, registration.
Routing template	Guide a bearing-guided or guide-bushing router bit.	MDF or phenolic; offset by bit radius from finished edge.
Mortise jig	Guide chisel or router for repeatable mortises.	Adjustable stops, hold-down for the workpiece edge.
Dovetail jig	Guide a router for pins and tails.	Indexed fingers, matched pin/tail templates.
Tenon / box-joint jig	Hold work vertical on a table saw or router.	Sub-base, clamp, micro-adjust for fit.
Taper jig	Hold a board at an angle for ripping a taper.	Adjustable wedge, hold-down, indexed reference.
Crosscut sled	Sliding carrier for repeatable crosscuts on table saw.	Two miter-slot runners, front and rear fence, stop block.
Circle-cutting jig	Pivot a router or saw around a center pin.	Centered pivot, lockable radius, dust port.
Bending jig	Form sheet metal or tube to repeatable angles.	Form block, follower or roller, mandrel for tubes.

Jig Material SelectionTAB. 4A-2

Material	Stability	Cost	Use
MDF	Good (sealed)	Low	Router templates, single-project jigs. Seals with shellac or thin CA.
Baltic birch ply	Excellent	Medium	Most-used jig material. Stable, machines clean, takes screws.
Phenolic (Garolite)	Excellent	High	Long-life router templates and precision jigs. Self-lubricating.
UHMW	Excellent	Medium	Slick surfaces (fence faces, slides). Won't take threads.
Aluminum (6061)	Excellent	Medium-High	Production jigs, precision references, drill bushing carriers.
Cold-rolled steel	Excellent	Medium	High-cycle production jigs, bushing plates, hardened wear surfaces.
Tooling board (Renshape)	Excellent	High	Vacuum form patterns, layup mandrels, master molds.
3D-printed (PETG, PA)	Fair-Good	Low	Prototype jigs, low-cycle templates. Avoid for cutting forces.

Match material to expected cycle count. A one-off router template for a single chair build is fine in MDF; a production drilling jig for a hundred parts wants aluminum with hardened steel bushings.

Tolerance Stack-up CalculatorTOOL 4A-1

Tolerance 1 (mm)

Tolerance 2 (mm)

Tolerance 3 (mm)

Tolerance 4 (mm)

Tolerance 5 (mm)

Worst-case (linear sum)—

Statistical (RSS)—

RSS / WS ratio—

Active stages—

Stack tolerances of multiple datums or jig stages to predict the final part variation. Worst-case is the absolute bound; RSS is the realistic 1σ assuming each stage's variation is independent and normally distributed. For one-off and small batches, design to worst-case. For production over many parts, RSS is closer to what you'll actually see.

Jig Design ChecklistTAB. 4A-3

Stage	Question
Locate	Where are the three primary, two secondary, one tertiary contact points? Are they on machined references?
Clamp	Where does the clamping force act? Does it push the part INTO the locators, not against them?
Support	Are there rest pads or shims supporting unsupported spans against cutting forces?
Cutting forces	What direction is the cutter pushing? Are clamps and locators absorbing it correctly?
Chip clearance	Where do chips go? Will they pack between the part and locator?
Load / unload	How fast can a part be loaded? Can it be loaded wrong (i.e., does the jig fool-proof orientation)?
Bushings / wear	For drilling jigs: are bushings hardened? Replaceable? Press-fit or slip-fit?
Repeatability test	How will you verify the jig produces the same result on repeat use?

Section 4B Shop & Studio

Fixturing and Workholding

Clamp selection, vise capacity, hold-down methods, toggle clamp force, and bench-top fixturing systems. Fixturing holds the workpiece; see 4A for jigs (which guide the cutter).

Clamp ReferenceTAB. 4B-1

Clamp	Force	Throat	Use
F-clamp (bar)	200-800 lbf	3-12"	General-purpose; one-handed quick adjust on most modern models.
Parallel jaw (Bessey K-body)	600-1500 lbf	3-5"	Glue-ups, panel work; jaws stay parallel under load.
Pipe clamp	600-1000 lbf	varies w/ pipe	Long glue-ups; budget option for any length.
C-clamp	300-1500 lbf	2-6"	Welding, metal fabrication, high force in small area.
Spring clamp	10-50 lbf	1-4"	Light hold-down, jig assembly, glue-up positioning.
Trigger / quick-grip	100-600 lbf	6-24"	One-handed; less force than F-clamp.
Hand-screw (wooden)	200-600 lbf	2-8"	Non-marring jaws; angled clamping; gentle on finished surfaces.
Toggle clamp (hold-down)	100-2500 lbf	1-4"	Repeat clamping in jigs and fixtures; on/off action.
Cam clamp	50-300 lbf	1-3"	Quick on/off in shop fixtures; mark prone.
Bench dog + holdfast	moderate	—	Workbench top, large pieces; holdfast wedges into dog hole.
Vacuum hold-down	14 psi × area	—	Sheet goods on CNC; force scales with surface area.
Magnetic chuck	10-200 psi	—	Ferrous metal on surface grinders, milling.

Vacuum Hold-down Force CalculatorTOOL 4B-1

Vacuum (in Hg, gauge)

Contact Area (in²)

Seal efficiency (%)

Vacuum (psi)—

Theoretical Force—

Effective Force—

Effective Force (N)—

1 in Hg = 0.491 psi. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (~30 in Hg) at sea level, so the theoretical maximum at perfect vacuum is 14.7 psi × area. Shop vacuum pumps hit 25-28 in Hg comfortably; venturi generators are limited to ~22 in Hg. Seal efficiency accounts for porous workpiece, gasket loss, and small leaks; 80-90% is typical for MDF and plywood.

Toggle Clamp SelectionTAB. 4B-2

Type	Force	Use
Horizontal hold-down (vertical handle)	100-700 lbf	Standard hold-down on jig surface. Handle out of cutting path.
Vertical hold-down (horizontal handle)	100-500 lbf	Where handle clearance overhead is limited; thinner profile.
Push-pull (straight-line)	100-2000 lbf	Side-clamping, locating into a fixed stop, lateral pressure.
Latch (pull action)	300-1500 lbf	Box-style fixtures, dies, hatches, mold halves.
Pneumatic toggle	200-3000 lbf	Production fixtures; faster cycle, no operator fatigue.

Toggle clamp force is the holding force after engagement, not the force needed to engage it. The over-center mechanism locks the clamp closed without continuous handle pressure. Drill the mounting holes through the fixture base; if the clamp pulls out, the locator pin is shouldering the load — not the design intent.

Vise ReferenceTAB. 4B-3

Vise	Jaw Width	Use
Bench (utility)	4-8"	General shop, soft and hard work. Swivel base common.
Machinist (mill)	4-8"	Precision-ground jaws, parallel to base. Kurt-style is the standard.
Woodworker's (front)	9-12"	Front of bench, parallel-jaw with dog. Veritas, Lie-Nielsen.
Woodworker's (tail)	3-4" jaw rise	End of bench; works with bench dogs for long pieces.
Drill press	3-6"	Lightweight, bolt-down. Always clamp to the table.
Toolmaker's (precision)	2-4"	Ground to 0.0002" parallelism. Surface grinding, inspection.
Pipe (chain or yoke)	1/8 - 6" pipe	Pipe-fitting; the chain wraps and grips.

Bench Hold-down MethodsTAB. 4B-4

Method	Speed	Hold	Use
Bench dog + tail vise	fast	linear	Long boards on the bench surface for planing and sawing.
Holdfast	fast	strong vertical	Tap into a dog hole; releases with a hammer tap.
Bench hook	fast	light	Crosscutting and chiseling small parts; rests against bench edge.
Wedges + planing stop	fast	linear	Traditional; a planing stop catches the end of a board.
Toggle clamp in jig	fast	strong	Production work in a fixture, repeat operations.
F-clamp through dog hole	medium	strong	Versatile; jaw down through hole, lever above.
Vacuum table	fast (after setup)	distributed	Sheet goods on CNC, flat parts on routers and lasers.
Double-sided tape (carpet)	fast	moderate	Pattern routing, sandblasting masks, light cuts.

A workbench is only as useful as its hold-down system. Plan dog hole spacing on a 4-8" grid; mix round (3/4") and square dogs. Holdfasts work better in thicker tops (2" minimum).

Section 4C Shop & Studio

Layout and Marking

Marking tools, layout fluids, squareness checking, and reference geometry for laying out parts directly on the work. Includes diagonal squareness check and 3-4-5 right-angle calculator.

Marking Tool ReferenceTAB. 4C-1

Tool	Mark	Use
Pencil (HB)	0.3-0.5 mm	General woodworking layout; balanced hardness.
Pencil (2H, 4H)	0.15-0.25 mm	Fine layout, technical drawing; stays sharp longer.
Mechanical pencil (0.5)	0.5 mm	Consistent line width; no sharpening.
Marking knife (single bevel)	0.05 mm	Joinery layout; severs wood fibers, prevents tear-out.
Marking gauge (pin)	scratch	Parallel marks from an edge; tradition uses pin, modern uses cutter wheel.
Cutting gauge (knife)	cut	Same as pin gauge but with a blade; severs fibers cleanly.
Mortise gauge	scratch (two pins)	Parallel pair of lines for mortise width.
Scratch awl	point	Single point marks; also pilot for drilling, hole starting.
Scriber (carbide)	0.1 mm scratch	Metal layout, hard surfaces. Scratches through layout fluid.
Center punch	dimple	Mark hole center; prevent drill bit walking.
Soapstone	wide	Hot metal, welding layout. Survives heat.
Silver pencil / china marker	wide	Dark or rough surfaces; metal, leather, stone.

Layout FluidsTAB. 4C-2

Fluid	Color	Dry Time	Use
Dykem Steel Blue (layout)	dark blue	~3 min	The shop standard. Scratch lines show silvery against blue.
Dykem Red	red	~3 min	Same as blue; visibility on some surfaces is better.
Layout ink (white)	white	~3 min	Dark metal; scratch shows as dark line.
Permanent marker (Sharpie)	varies	~1 min	Quick layout; removes with alcohol or acetone.
Machinist's chalk	varies	instant	Quick reference marks on hot or oily surfaces.
White-out / typing fluid	white	~30 sec	Quick light marker on dark surfaces; removes with solvent.
Bluing paste (gun blue)	dark blue/black	minutes	Spot-checking gear and bearing contact patterns; transfers high spots.

3-4-5 Right Angle CalculatorTOOL 4C-1

Base Multiplier

Units

Leg A (3×)—

Leg B (4×)—

Hypotenuse (5×)—

Lay out two legs of the right angle from a corner point, mark length of leg A and leg B. If the hypotenuse measures the calculated value, the corner is exactly 90°. Useful for cabin foundations, large layouts, room squareness checks. Multipliers of 6-8-10 and 9-12-15 work the same way but cover bigger spans.

Diagonal Squareness CheckTOOL 4C-2

Side A

Side B

Diagonal 1 (measured)

Diagonal 2 (measured)

Theoretical Diagonal—

Diagonal Difference—

Out-of-Square Angle—

Adjustment Direction—

—

Measure both diagonals on a four-sided frame, panel, or layout. If the diagonals are equal, the layout is a rectangle (square corners). If not, the longer diagonal points to the obtuse pair of corners; tap that pair toward you to bring the frame square. Match the theoretical diagonal as a check on overall size as well as squareness.

Reference Square ToleranceTAB. 4C-3

Square Type	Tolerance / 6"	Use
Framing square (rough)	±0.030"	Carpentry layout, framing. Check before relying on it.
Combination square (Stanley)	±0.005"	General shop; flips between 90° and 45°.
Combination square (Starrett)	±0.001"	Premium machinist standard.
Engineer's try square	±0.0005"	Precision metal and wood; reference for other squares.
Cylindrical / Toolmaker's	±0.0001"	Calibration master; sits on surface plate.

Test any square against a known-flat edge: mark a line, flip the square, mark again from the same datum point. If the two lines diverge, the square is half the divergence out. Premium squares are still wrong if dropped — re-verify after any impact.

Section 4D Shop & Studio

Shop Safety

PPE reference, OSHA noise exposure limits, respirator filter classes, glove ratings, fire extinguisher classes, and first-aid for common shop injuries. This is reference; certified training and your specific OSHA / regional requirements take precedence.

Noise Exposure (TWA)TOOL 4D-1

Sound Level (dBA)

Standard

Permissible Daily Dose—

Hearing Protection—

Risk Category—

—

OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL): 90 dBA over 8 hours; halve the time for each +5 dB. NIOSH recommended exposure limit (REL): 85 dBA over 8 hours; halve the time for each +3 dB (stricter). Hearing damage is cumulative and irreversible; protect once you're above 85 dBA for sustained exposure.

Common Shop Sound LevelsTAB. 4D-1

Source	dBA	Note
Whisper	30	Reference quiet.
Normal conversation	60	Safe indefinitely.
Vacuum cleaner	75	Long exposure begins to fatigue.
Hand tools (drill, sander)	85-95	Hearing protection recommended above 85.
Router	95-105	Hearing protection required.
Table saw cutting	95-105	Hearing protection required.
Planer / jointer (loaded)	100-110	Strong hearing protection.
Chainsaw, angle grinder	105-115	Double protection (plugs + muffs) recommended.
Air-arc, plasma cutting	110-115	Double protection.
Gunshot, .22 rimfire	140	Instant damage. Always protect.
Gunshot, centerfire rifle	160-175	Instant damage. Double protection.

Respirator Filter ClassesTAB. 4D-2

Class	Filters	Oil Resistance	Use
N95	95% particulate	not oil-resistant	Sawdust, drywall, sanding. The shop default.
N99	99% particulate	not oil-resistant	Finer particulates than N95.
N100 / HE	99.97% particulate	not oil-resistant	Lead, asbestos abatement (with full procedure).
R95	95% particulate	oil-resistant (8 hr)	Sprays with light oil mist.
P95 / P100	95% / 99.97%	oil-proof	Most paint and lacquer spraying particulates.
OV cartridge (organic vapor)	vapors, not particles	—	Solvent spray; check service life by smell breakthrough.
OV / P100 combination	both	oil-proof	Spraying solvent-based finishes; full protection.
Acid gas, ammonia, formaldehyde	specific gas	—	Specialty; match cartridge to chemical.
PAPR (powered)	HEPA + comfort	varies	Welding fume, long sessions, beard wearers (no fit-test needed).

Particulate filters don't stop vapors; vapor cartridges don't stop particulates. Wood dust is class N (fine particulate); finishing sprays usually need P plus OV combination. Replace OV cartridges by schedule, not smell — by the time you smell the chemical, you've been over-exposed.

Cut-Resistant Glove RatingsTAB. 4D-3

ANSI Cut Level	Grams to Cut	EN 388 Equivalent	Use
A1	200-499 g	EN 1-2	Light handling, no sharp edges. General assembly.
A2	500-999 g	EN 2-3	Light material handling, light sharps.
A3	1000-1499 g	EN 3	Sheet metal edges, glass handling.
A4	1500-2199 g	EN 4-5	Light metal stamping, HVAC ducting.
A5	2200-2999 g	EN 5	Metal fabrication, automotive.
A6	3000-3999 g	EN 5	Heavy metal handling.
A7	4000-4999 g	EN F	Glass, metal stamping, heavy fabrication.
A8	5000-5999 g	EN F	Very heavy steel handling.
A9	6000+ g	EN F	Specialty; razor wire, heavy salvage.

Cut resistance is about lateral slicing force, not puncture (which has its own rating). Knit shells with HPPE or Kevlar fiber are the modern standard up through A5; for higher levels, expect stainless or composite yarns. Sharp tools call for lower-dexterity high-cut gloves; running power tools generally calls for low cut + good grip, never loose-fit gloves on rotating equipment.

Fire Extinguisher ClassesTAB. 4D-4

Class	Fuel	Agent	Notes
A	Wood, paper, cloth	Water, foam, ABC dry chemical	The shop default for general combustibles.
B	Flammable liquids (oil, gas, solvent)	BC or ABC dry chemical, CO₂, foam	Never use water on B fires — spreads the fuel.
C	Energized electrical equipment	BC or ABC dry chemical, CO₂	Non-conductive agents only.
D	Combustible metals (Mg, Ti, Na, Li)	Class D powder (sodium chloride, copper)	Metal shops, lithium battery work. Specialty units.
K	Cooking oils, fats	Wet chemical	Commercial kitchens. Saponifies the oil surface.
ABC (multipurpose)	A, B, C	Monoammonium phosphate	One unit covers most shop fires. Leaves corrosive residue.
CO₂	B, C	Carbon dioxide	Clean (no residue), good for electronics, finishing rooms.

Mount at the exit, not next to the hazard. PASS: Pull pin, Aim at base, Squeeze handle, Sweep. If the fire's larger than a wastebasket on first sight, leave and call 911. Check pressure gauge monthly; replace or recharge after any use.

Shop First Aid Quick ReferenceTAB. 4D-5

Injury	Immediate Action	Get Help If
Minor cut	Rinse with water, apply pressure, clean, bandage.	Won't stop bleeding in 10 min direct pressure; numbness; deep enough to see fat or bone.
Deep cut / major bleed	Direct pressure with clean cloth, elevate, call 911.	Always — for arterial bleeding (pulsing bright red).
Finger amputation	Direct pressure to stump, wrap amputated part in clean cloth on ice (not in ice), 911.	Always; quick transport matters for reattachment.
Eye splinter / dust	Don't rub. Flush with saline / clean water 15 min.	Embedded, persistent pain, blurred vision after flushing.
Splinter (skin)	Tweezers, follow entry angle, antibiotic, bandage.	Won't come out, signs of infection (redness, heat, pus, fever).
Chemical eye splash	Flush 15-20 min, eyes wide. Call poison control.	Always — even after flushing.
Chemical skin contact	Remove contaminated clothing, flush 15 min.	Caustic burn signs, large area, breathing difficulty.
Minor burn (1st degree)	Cool water 10-15 min. No ice. No butter or oils.	Large area; face, hands, feet, genitals; blistering.
Serious burn (2nd / 3rd)	Don't remove stuck clothing. Cover loosely with sterile cloth. 911.	Always.
Electrical shock	Disconnect power first. Don't touch victim while live. CPR if needed.	Always; entry/exit points may hide deep damage.

Keep a stocked first-aid kit in clear sight near the main work area, eyewash station within 10 seconds of any chemical work, and posted emergency numbers. Know where your shut-offs are: shop power, gas, water. Practice can-I-walk-to-the-eyewash with eyes closed.

Section 4E Shop & Studio

Project Photography

Exposure triangle, depth of field math, hyperfocal distance, focal length and field of view, lighting setups, and color temperature reference. Oriented to documenting completed work and process shots.

Exposure CalculatorTOOL 4E-1

ISO

Aperture (f/)

Shutter (sec, decimal)

Target Compensation (stops)

Current EV (at ISO 100)—

Shutter Equivalent—

Same exposure @ f/8—

Same exposure @ ISO 800—

After compensation—

Exposure value (EV) = log₂(f² / t) at ISO 100. Each "stop" doubles or halves the light. Aperture stops: f/1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22 (each step halves the light). Shutter stops: 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/15, 1/30, 1/60, 1/125, 1/250, 1/500 (each step halves). ISO stops: 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600 (each step doubles).

Depth of Field CalculatorTOOL 4E-2

Focal Length (mm)

Aperture (f/)

Subject Distance (m)

Sensor

Hyperfocal Distance—

Near limit—

Far limit—

Total DoF—

Hyperfocal: H = f² / (N × c), where N is aperture and c is circle of confusion. Focus at hyperfocal and everything from H/2 to infinity is acceptably sharp. For product shots of small parts, focus stack instead — DoF at f/16 macro is still only a few millimeters deep.

Color Temperature ReferenceTAB. 4E-1

Source	Kelvin	Notes
Candle, oil lamp	1800-1900	Very warm; orange-red cast.
Incandescent (60W)	2700	Tungsten warm white; common home lighting.
Tungsten / halogen	3200	Studio tungsten standard; warm white.
"Warm white" LED	2700-3000	Common indoor LED.
Sunrise / sunset golden hour	3000-4000	Warm, low-angle sun.
Cool white fluorescent	4000-4500	Office lighting; can have green spike.
Direct sun (noon)	5200-5500	Daylight balance reference.
Flash, electronic	5500-6000	Balanced for daylight film/digital.
Overcast sky	6500-7500	Diffused daylight; blue cast.
Open shade	7500-8500	Sky as light source only.
North blue sky	9000-12000	Coldest natural light.

Setting custom white balance from a gray card eliminates surprises. Mixing color temperatures in one scene (window light + tungsten lamp) usually looks broken; gel the small light to match the big one. For product shots, single-temperature daylight LED panels (5000-5600K) are the cheapest path to consistent color.

Lens Focal Length ReferenceTAB. 4E-2

Range	Full Frame	APS-C eq.	Use
Ultra-wide	14-24 mm	9-16	Architecture, environment, shop wide-shots. Distorts perspective.
Wide	24-35 mm	16-23	Tight interiors, group shots, environmental portraits.
Normal	35-50 mm	23-35	Documentary, walk-around. 50 mm matches human perspective.
Short tele	85-105 mm	55-70	Portraits, product, flattering perspective compression.
Tele	135-200 mm	90-135	Tight portrait, detail isolation, sports.
Long tele	300 mm +	200 +	Wildlife, distant subjects.
Macro (1:1)	90-105 mm typical	—	Workshop detail, jewelry, engraving, finish texture.

For shop photography: a 50 mm or short macro covers most documentation; 24-70 mm zoom is the workhorse. Avoid wide-angle for finished pieces — barrel distortion bows straight lines. The "reciprocal rule" of thumb: minimum hand-held shutter speed ≈ 1 / focal length × crop factor (so 50 mm on APS-C needs 1/80 sec minimum without stabilization).

Lighting Setup ReferenceTAB. 4E-3

Setup	Lights	Use
Single key	1	One large softbox at 45°. Honest, moody.
Two-light (key + fill)	2	Key plus reflector or weaker side light. Standard product.
Three-point	3	Key + fill + rim/hair. Standard portrait, video interview.
Clamshell	2	Light above + reflector below. Beauty, flat-lay, jewelry.
Light tent	2-4	Diffused all around. Small products, no reflections.
Window + reflector	1 (free)	North window + white card opposite. Best free studio.
Hard back-light only	1	Translucent subjects, glass, vapor, smoke.

Distance: as the subject-to-light distance shrinks, the source effectively grows in size relative to the subject, producing softer light. Inverse square: doubling the distance gives 1/4 the light. For documentation, soft + slightly directional reads as honest; flat-on hard light reads as security camera.

Section 4F Shop & Studio

Project Videography

Frame rates and resolution, the 180° shutter rule, codec selection, storage requirements, and B-roll shot list categories. Oriented to process documentation, build videos, and short-form social.

Frame Rate & Shutter CalculatorTOOL 4F-1

Frame Rate (fps)

Shutter Angle (°)

Shutter Speed (sec)—

Shutter Speed (fraction)—

Frame Duration—

Motion Blur Character—

180° rule: shutter speed = 1 / (2 × fps). Gives natural motion blur ("cinematic"). Halving to 90° (1 / 4·fps) gives sharper, more staccato motion — Saving Private Ryan opening. Doubling to 360° (1 / fps) gives heavy blur, dream / drug effect. For sports and how-to detail, faster shutter (lower angle) reads more clearly.

Storage CalculatorTOOL 4F-2

Bitrate (Mbps)

Duration (minutes)

Card / SSD size (GB)

File Size—

Minutes per Card—

Cards for Duration—

Size (GB) = bitrate (Mbps) × duration (min) × 60 / 8000. Always shoot to faster storage than the bitrate requires — V60, V90, CFexpress for 4K and above. Carry at least 1.5× the expected footage in cards or drives; corruption and bad takes happen.

Resolution ReferenceTAB. 4F-1

Name	Pixels	Aspect	Notes
SD / DVD	720×480 / 720×576	4:3 or 16:9	Legacy. Don't shoot here.
HD (720p)	1280×720	16:9	Web compressed; legacy YouTube.
Full HD (1080p)	1920×1080	16:9	Still the social and broadcast workhorse.
UHD / 4K	3840×2160	16:9	Consumer 4K. 4× pixels of 1080p.
DCI 4K	4096×2160	17:9	Cinema 4K standard.
6K	6048×4032 typical	3:2 to 17:9	Reframe room for 4K delivery.
8K UHD	7680×4320	16:9	Future-proofing; big files.
Vertical (social)	1080×1920 / 2160×3840	9:16	Reels, TikTok, Shorts.
Square (social)	1080×1080 / 2160×2160	1:1	Instagram feed.
Anamorphic 2.39:1	3840×1606 typical	2.39:1	Cinematic wide; letterboxed delivery.

Codec ReferenceTAB. 4F-2

Codec	Use	Bitrate (1080p / 4K)	Notes
H.264 / AVC	Web delivery, social, consumer	~10 / ~50 Mbps	Universal compatibility. Lossy.
H.265 / HEVC	Modern delivery, 4K+	~5 / ~25 Mbps	~50% smaller than H.264 at same quality.
AV1	Streaming (YouTube, Netflix)	~4 / ~20 Mbps	Royalty-free; better than HEVC; slower encode.
ProRes 422 LT	Light edit codec	~100 / ~400 Mbps	Apple intermediate; lossy but visually transparent.
ProRes 422 (standard)	Edit / delivery	~150 / ~600 Mbps	Workhorse intermediate.
ProRes 422 HQ	High-quality edit	~220 / ~880 Mbps	Heavier; for grade-and-go.
ProRes 4444 XQ	VFX, mastering	~500 / ~2000 Mbps	With alpha; very heavy.
DNxHD / DNxHR	Avid; alt to ProRes	varies	Cross-platform intermediate.
CinemaDNG / RAW	Mastering, color	2-6 Gbps	Per-frame raw sensor data. Huge files, full latitude.

Shoot in the highest-quality format your camera offers if you plan to color-grade; transcode to ProRes / DNx for editing if your computer struggles with H.265. For YouTube delivery, export H.264 or H.265 at 50-80 Mbps 4K and let the platform re-encode.

B-Roll Shot ListTAB. 4F-3

Category	Examples
Establishing	Wide of the shop, exterior of the building, sign, tool wall, work in progress on the bench.
Tool reveal	Hands picking up the tool, light catching the edge, sliding into shot, slow rotation.
Detail / texture	Macro of grain, weld pool, blade meeting material, sawdust falling, glue squeeze-out.
Action	Stroke through the cut, hammer strike, drill bit boring, plane shaving curling.
Hands	Close on grip, fingers measuring, pencil marking, brush sweeping.
Eye-line / face	Maker's focused expression. Even if not on-camera, it sells the moment.
Transitions	Whip pans, in-out of focus, hand pass over lens, match cuts (same shape in / out).
Reveal	Slow tilt up the finished piece, walk-around 360°, on/off of the dust sheet.
Process / time	Time-lapses of glue-up, finish drying, kiln firing, project taking shape.
Environment	Light through a window, sawdust in sunbeam, kettle, radio, cat in the shop.

Shoot more B-roll than you think you need; in the edit, the cuts you have are the cuts you can use. For any process step you'll feature, capture wide, medium, and close coverage of the same moment from slightly different angles — gives the editor cuts.

Section 4G Shop & Studio

Audio Recording

Microphone types and patterns, signal levels and gain staging, sample rate and bit depth, frequency ranges, and basic acoustic treatment. Oriented to voiceover, interview, and shop-process recording for video.

Microphone TypesTAB. 4G-1

Type	Power	Strengths	Use
Dynamic (moving coil)	none	Rugged, loud sources, rejects ambient	Shop voiceover, podcast, drums, loud guitar amps. SM58, SM7B.
Condenser (large diaphragm)	phantom 48V	Sensitive, detailed, full range	Studio voice, vocals, acoustic instruments. AT2020, Neumann U87.
Condenser (small diaphragm)	phantom 48V	Detailed, transient response	Acoustic guitar, cymbals, room mics. KM84, SE7.
Ribbon	none (some active w/ phantom)	Smooth, vintage, sensitive to handling	Voiceover (warm), brass, guitar cabs. Royer R-121.
Shotgun (line)	phantom or battery	Tight forward pattern, rejects sides	Field, video on-camera, interview boom. Sennheiser MKH 416.
Lavalier	battery or phantom	Close to source, small, hidden	Interview, talking-head video, wearer-mounted.
USB condenser	USB bus	Plug-and-play, decent quality	Podcast, simple voiceover, no interface needed.
Boundary / PZM	phantom	Mounts to a surface, picks up area	Conference, room ambience, sound design.

Pickup Pattern ReferenceTAB. 4G-2

Pattern	Pickup	Use
Omnidirectional	360° equal	Room ambience, conference, lav (clothing-noise tolerant).
Cardioid	front, rejects rear	Most-common voice and instrument mic pattern.
Supercardioid	tighter front, small rear lobe	Live stage, tighter than cardioid but small rear pickup.
Hypercardioid	narrower front, larger rear lobe	Loud stage environments where back rejection is critical.
Shotgun (line)	very tight forward	Field video boom, sound design from distance.
Figure-8 / bidirectional	front and back, dead sides	Two-person interview face-to-face, M/S stereo recording.
Variable	switch on body	Studio versatility; switch between omni, cardioid, fig-8.

Cardioid is the right answer 80% of the time. Switch to shotgun for noisy shop environments (rejects more), or to dynamic + cardioid for very loud sources. Avoid omni in any environment with noticeable noise floor.

Sample Rate & Bit DepthTAB. 4G-3

Format	Sample Rate	Bit Depth	Use
CD audio	44.1 kHz	16-bit	Music delivery standard.
Video standard	48 kHz	16 or 24-bit	All video deliverables; matches broadcast.
High-res audio	96 kHz	24-bit	Music production headroom; rarely audible after delivery.
Ultra high-res	192 kHz	24-bit	Sound design, time-stretch source, mastering.
32-bit float	48 / 96 kHz	32-bit float	Field recording where levels are unpredictable; effectively no clipping.

For video: record 48 kHz / 24-bit; bit depth gives headroom against clipping. Higher sample rates beyond 96 kHz are largely engineering pride — humans top out at 20 kHz, and the Nyquist limit of 48 kHz handles that with margin. 32-bit float is a real game-changer for run-and-gun: the noise floor is effectively below digital silence, so you can record a quiet sigh and a hammer strike on the same take.

Signal Level ReferenceTAB. 4G-4

Level	Voltage	Use
Mic level	~1 mV to 100 mV	Microphone output. Needs preamp.
Instrument level (Hi-Z)	~100 mV	Passive guitar/bass pickup. DI box or hi-Z input.
Line level (consumer)	~316 mV (-10 dBV)	CD player, prosumer gear, RCA jacks.
Line level (pro)	~1.23 V (+4 dBu)	Mixers, processors, mastering gear, XLR balanced.
Speaker level	several volts to 50+ V	Amplifier output. Never feed into a line input.
Phantom power	+48 V DC	Supplied by mixer / interface to condenser mics.

Match levels at every stage. Plugging an SM58 (mic level) into a line input gives faint, hissy audio. Plugging a synth (line level) into a mic input clips the preamp. If your interface has a "+4 / -10" switch per input, check it. Phantom power is safe to most mics but damages some ribbons — confirm before flipping the switch.

RT60 Reverb EstimatorTOOL 4G-1

Room Volume (m³)

Total Absorption (m² sabin)

RT60 (Sabine)—

Character—

Volume (cu ft)—

Sabine formula: RT60 = 0.161 × V / A, where V is room volume in m³ and A is total absorption in sabins (m² of perfectly absorbent equivalent surface). Most untreated rooms have 0.5-1.5 sec RT60 — voice recordings sound cavernous. Add 6-10 m² sabin of treatment to bring a small workshop room down to a clean voice-over range (0.3-0.5 sec).

Absorption ReferenceTAB. 4G-5

Material	α (500 Hz)	Notes
Concrete, smooth	0.02	Untreated shop floor. Effectively reflective.
Glass window	0.10	Mostly reflective; treat or curtain.
Painted drywall	0.05	Untreated wall.
Wood paneling	0.10-0.15	Slight absorption.
Curtains (medium velour)	0.50	Hung with airspace behind doubles effectiveness.
Carpet on concrete	0.30	Standard residential carpet.
2" rigid fiberglass / mineral wool panel	0.85-0.95	Acoustic treatment standard. 24×48" panel = ~7 sabin.
4" rigid panel	0.95-1.0	Better low-frequency absorption.
Open bookshelf, full of books	0.20-0.40	Cheap diffuser and absorber; depends on titles.
Heavy upholstered furniture	0.30-0.50	Helps; a couch is treatment.

α is the absorption coefficient at 500 Hz (the band most relevant to speech). Total absorption in a room = sum of (area × α) for every surface. For voiceover work, target an RT60 of 0.2-0.4 sec; for music, 0.5-0.8 sec depending on style. Egg crates, foam pyramids, and "studio foam" treat high frequencies but do almost nothing below 500 Hz — they make a bright room muddier, not more controlled.

Section 4H Shop & Studio

Parts Sourcing

A search launcher for the vendors I reach for most often. Type a query once, click whichever vendor is most likely to stock the part. Search opens on the vendor's site in a new tab. The Almanac itself stays offline and does not log or transmit queries; vendor sites follow their own policies once you arrive. Covers Digi-Key, Mouser, LCSC, Newark, Arrow on the electronics side; McMaster-Carr, Grainger, MSC, Fastenal on the industrial side; SparkFun, Adafruit for hobby breakouts; Amazon as a generalist fallback.

Search QueryTOOL 4H-1

What are you looking for?

Examples:

Pressing a vendor button below opens that vendor's search in a new tab. Different vendors index parts differently: Digi-Key parses values out of free-text (try "4.7k 0805 1%"), McMaster prefers descriptive phrases ("socket head cap screw 1/4-20 stainless"), LCSC matches generic part numbers tightly. Try the same query at two or three vendors when in doubt.

ElectronicsTAB. 4H-1

Digi-Key and Mouser are the two big US authorized distributors with the deepest catalogs and most reliable lead times. LCSC pairs with JLCPCB for cheap China-direct sourcing and is the budget option for hobby work. Newark and Arrow round out the authorized-distributor set when one of the others is short.

Industrial & MechanicalTAB. 4H-2

McMaster-Carr is the gold standard for same-day shipping on shop hardware, raw stock, and obscure mechanical parts. Grainger and MSC are deeper on cutting tools, industrial supply, and bulk fasteners. Fastenal has local branches across the US for picking up fasteners and rod stock in person.

Hobby & MakerTAB. 4H-3

For dev boards, breakouts, and learn-focused kits. SparkFun and Adafruit both stock items oriented to maker-scale projects with documentation; Adafruit leans more education-and-tutorial, SparkFun more breakout-and-sensor catalog.

Generalist FallbackTAB. 4H-4

When you cannot find it elsewhere, or need it tomorrow. Caveat emptor on counterfeits for branded electronic parts; verify by datasheet against package markings on arrival.

Section 4I Shop & Studio

Optics

A working reference for focal length, sensor size, field of view, and projection math. Useful next to 4E Photography (which holds the depth-of-field calculator and exposure tools) for camera setup, and on its own for projector throw distance, machine vision lens selection, and macro work. Covers full-frame, APS-C, Micro Four Thirds, 1-inch, smartphone, and Raspberry Pi sensors.

Lens & Optics FundamentalsTAB. 4I-1

Concept	Formula / Definition	Notes
Focal length (f)	distance from lens to sensor when focused at infinity	Determines field of view and magnification
F-number (f/N)	N = f / aperture diameter	f/2.8 is wide (more light); f/16 is narrow (more DOF)
Field of view (FOV)	2 × atan(sensor / 2f)	Diagonal, horizontal, or vertical depending on which sensor dimension
Crop factor	43.27 / sensor diagonal (mm)	Relative to 35mm full-frame; smaller sensor = larger crop
Effective focal length	actual f × crop factor	50mm lens on APS-C "looks like" 75-80mm on full-frame
Depth of field (DOF)	region of acceptable sharpness	Increases with smaller aperture, shorter f, farther subject
Hyperfocal distance	H = f² / (N × c)	Focus here for max DOF; c = circle of confusion
Magnification (m)	image size / object size	1:1 macro means subject same size on sensor as in real life
Thin lens equation	1/f = 1/do + 1/di	Relates focal length to object and image distance

Sensor SizesTAB. 4I-2

Sensor	Dimensions (mm)	Diagonal (mm)	Crop Factor
Full-frame (135 / 35mm)	36 × 24	43.27	1.00×
APS-H (Canon)	28.7 × 19	34.5	1.25×
APS-C (Nikon, Sony, Fuji)	23.6 × 15.6	28.3	1.53×
APS-C (Canon)	22.3 × 14.9	26.8	1.61×
Micro Four Thirds	17.3 × 13	21.6	2.00×
1-inch (Sony RX, P&S)	13.2 × 8.8	15.9	2.72×
2/3-inch	8.8 × 6.6	11.0	3.93×
1/1.7-inch (high-end phone)	7.6 × 5.7	9.5	4.55×
1/2.3-inch (compact / drone)	6.17 × 4.55	7.66	5.64×
1/3-inch (RPi HQ Camera)	6.29 × 4.71	7.85	5.51×
1/4-inch (RPi v2 / IMX219)	3.68 × 2.76	4.60	9.40×

Crop factor lets you compare lens behavior across sensor sizes. A 25mm lens on Micro Four Thirds frames the same scene as a 50mm lens on full-frame. Smaller sensors give more DOF at any given aperture, which is why phones can fake "portrait mode" with software but real bokeh comes from large sensors.

Field of View CalculatorTOOL 4I-1

Focal Length (mm)

Sensor

Subject Distance (m)

Horizontal FOV—

Vertical FOV—

Diagonal FOV—

Frame Width @ distance—

Frame Height @ distance—

Effective Focal Length—

FOV = 2 × atan(sensor / 2f). For a 50mm lens on full-frame, horizontal FOV is about 40°. The "frame width at distance" is what you'd actually capture at that subject distance, useful for sizing a backdrop, framing a product shot, or setting up a copy stand.

Projection & MagnificationTOOL 4I-2

Object Size (mm)

Object Distance (m)

Focal Length (mm)

Image Distance—

Magnification—

Image Size on Sensor—

Thin lens equation: 1/f = 1/do + 1/di. For everyday photography (objects at meters, focal lengths in millimeters) the image distance is approximately equal to the focal length. For projection or macro work where object distance approaches focal length, the math becomes important.

Common Lens CategoriesTAB. 4I-3

Category	Focal Range (full-frame eq.)	Typical Use
Ultra-wide / fisheye	8-20 mm	Real estate interiors, landscape, astrophotography, action cams
Wide	24-35 mm	Landscape, environmental portrait, walk-around, video B-roll
Normal	40-58 mm	Documentary, street, "natural" perspective; 50mm is the classic
Short telephoto / portrait	70-135 mm	Portrait (flattering compression), product, headshots
Telephoto	150-300 mm	Sports, wildlife, tight isolated subjects
Super-telephoto	300-800 mm+	Distant wildlife, aviation, astrophotography
Macro	50-200 mm (1:1 capable)	Small object detail, product, scientific work
Tilt-shift	17-90 mm	Architecture (perspective correction), product, miniature-look

Focal range is reported in full-frame equivalent. For shop photography of small projects and parts, a 50-100mm prime or short macro on whatever sensor you have hits the sweet spot for working distance and detail.

Section 5A Power & Motion

Motor Sizing

A working reference for selecting motors for shop projects and small machinery: DC brushed, BLDC, stepper, servo, and AC induction. Covers torque calculation, NEMA flange dimensions for stepper mounting, lead screw selection for linear motion, gear ratio math, and stepper microstepping. For pulley and belt drive math see 2O Pulleys, Belts, Gears.

Motor Type ComparisonFIG. 5A-1

DC brushed is the simplest and cheapest but the brushes wear. BLDC trades a more complex driver for long life and high efficiency. Steppers give precise position without feedback at the cost of low speed and possible missed steps. Servos add closed-loop feedback for precision under load. AC induction dominates above a few hundred watts where line power is available.

NEMA Flange DimensionsTAB. 5A-1

NEMA Size	Flange (mm)	Bolt Circle	Shaft Ø (mm)	Typical Holding Torque	Use
NEMA 8	20.4 × 20.4	16.0 mm	4	2-3 N·cm	Tiny mechanisms, miniature actuators
NEMA 11	28 × 28	23.0 mm	5	5-10 N·cm	Small camera sliders, lab automation
NEMA 14	35 × 35	26.0 mm	5	10-20 N·cm	Light 3D printers (Delta), small CNC
NEMA 17	42.3 × 42.3	31.0 mm	5	20-65 N·cm	Workhorse: 3D printers, small CNC, robotics
NEMA 23	56.4 × 56.4	47.1 mm	6.35 / 8	100-300 N·cm	Mid CNC, lathes, hobby mills
NEMA 24	60 × 60	50.0 mm	10	150-400 N·cm	Mid-large CNC, industrial automation
NEMA 34	86 × 86	69.6 mm	14	400-1500 N·cm	Industrial CNC, large gantry systems
NEMA 42	110 × 110	89.0 mm	19	2000+ N·cm	Large industrial; rarely seen in hobby work

NEMA frame size refers to the square flange dimension in tenths of an inch (NEMA 17 = 1.7 in = 42.3 mm). Mounting holes are at the bolt circle diameter. Shaft diameters are nominal; verify exact dimensions per manufacturer datasheet. Torque ratings vary widely with motor length and current; always check the datasheet for the specific part.

Torque CalculatorTOOL 5A-1

Load (kg)

Moment Arm / Radius (mm)

Safety Factor

Mechanical Advantage

Static Torque—

With Safety Factor—

Required Motor Torque—

In oz·in—

Torque = force × moment arm. For a 5 kg load on a 50 mm arm: F = 49 N, torque = 2.45 N·m. Apply a safety factor (1.5-2× for steady loads, 2-3× for shock loads). Mechanical advantage (pulleys, levers, gears) reduces motor torque proportionally but reduces output speed by the same ratio.

Lead Screw CalculatorTOOL 5A-2

Lead (mm/rev)

Linear Load (N)

Target Linear Speed (mm/s)

Efficiency (%)

Friction Coefficient

Required Motor RPM—

Required Motor Torque—

Mechanical Power—

Note—

Common lead screws: T8×2 (2mm/rev, slow precise), T8×8 (8mm/rev, faster). Acme threads run 30-40% efficient; ball screws 85-95%. For an 8mm lead at 20 mm/s, motor must spin 150 RPM. Backdrive resistance increases as lead decreases; below about 4mm lead per revolution, leadscrews self-lock under static load.

Gear Ratio CalculatorTOOL 5A-3

Input Speed (RPM)

Input Torque (N·m)

Gear Ratio (X : 1)

Stage Efficiency (%)

Output Speed—

Output Torque—

Input Power—

Output Power—

Ratio > 1 reduces speed and multiplies torque (reduction gear). Ratio = 10:1 means 10 input revolutions per 1 output revolution. Torque scales by ratio × efficiency. Spur gears: 95-98% per stage. Worm gears: 50-90% (high reduction in one stage, often self-locking). Planetary: 90-95% per stage.

Stepper Microstepping ReferenceTAB. 5A-2

Microstep	Steps / Rev (1.8° motor)	Resolution	Trade-off
Full step	200	1.800°	Maximum torque, most audible noise
Half step	400	0.900°	~70% holding torque, quieter
1/4 step	800	0.450°	Smoother, less torque ripple
1/8 step	1600	0.225°	Standard for 3D printer X/Y
1/16 step	3200	0.1125°	Common on Trinamic drivers
1/32 step	6400	0.0563°	Very smooth; diminishing returns past this
1/64 - 1/256 step	12800-51200	<0.03°	Trinamic StealthChop; mostly for noise reduction

Standard stepper is 1.8° per full step (200 steps/rev). 0.9° motors exist (400 steps/rev) for finer resolution. Microstepping interpolates between full steps electrically; effective accuracy improvement maxes out around 1/8 to 1/16 because the rotor cogs into discrete detent positions regardless of driver subdivision. Above that, you're getting smoother motion and quieter operation, not more resolution.

Section 5B Power & Motion

Pneumatics & Hydraulics

Fitting standards, thread comparison, hose ratings, air consumption math, and pneumatic vs hydraulic system selection. For cylinder force and hoop stress math see 2Q Pressure & Pneumatic; this section focuses on fittings, flow, and fluid power system design.

Pressure Unit ConversionTOOL 5B-1

Pressure Value

Input Unit

psi—

bar—

kPa—

MPa—

atm—

inHg / mmHg—

kgf/cm²—

Shop air systems run 90-120 psi (6-8 bar). Hydraulic systems typically run 1000-3000 psi (70-200 bar). 1 atm = 14.7 psi = 1.013 bar. Gauge pressure (psig, barg) is what the gauge reads; absolute pressure (psia) adds atmospheric. Most shop work uses gauge.

NPT vs BSP Thread ComparisonTAB. 5B-1

Standard	Region	Thread Angle	Form	Seal	Notes
NPT	USA, Canada	60°	Tapered	Thread interference + sealant	National Pipe Taper; needs tape or pipe dope
NPTF	USA	60°	Tapered (dry)	Thread interference only	Designed to seal without tape; "dryseal"
BSPT (R)	UK, EU, Asia	55°	Tapered	Thread interference + sealant	British Standard Pipe Taper; not interchangeable with NPT
BSPP (G)	UK, EU, Asia	55°	Parallel	O-ring or bonded washer	British Standard Pipe Parallel; thread does not seal
JIC 37°	USA hydraulics	60°	Parallel + flare	Metal-to-metal flare	Common in hydraulics; reusable, vibration-resistant
ORFS (O-ring Face Seal)	USA hydraulics	60°	Parallel	O-ring face	High-pressure hydraulics; very reliable
Metric (ISO 9974)	Global	60°	Parallel	O-ring or bonded washer	European hydraulics; M10×1, M14×1.5, etc.

NPT and BSPT look similar but the thread angles (60° vs 55°) and pitches do not match; mixing them strips threads. The most common mistake: trying to mate a BSP fitting from a European cylinder into a US NPT manifold. Buy NPT-BSP adapters or commit to one standard for the whole system.

Common Pipe & Fitting SizesTAB. 5B-2

Nominal Size	NPT Threads/in	OD (in)	OD (mm)	Typical Use
1/8"	27	0.405	10.3	Small instrumentation, gauges
1/4"	18	0.540	13.7	Small shop air, pneumatic cylinders
3/8"	18	0.675	17.1	Mid shop air, larger cylinders
1/2"	14	0.840	21.3	Main shop air line, larger hydraulics
3/4"	14	1.050	26.7	Large shop air drops, water
1"	11.5	1.315	33.4	Compressor mains, industrial

Air Consumption CalculatorTOOL 5B-2

Cylinder Bore (mm)

Stroke (mm)

Working Pressure (bar)

Cycles per Minute

Action

Cylinder Volume / Stroke—

Free Air per Cycle—

Consumption (SCFM)—

Consumption (L/min)—

Compressor sizing tip—

Free air is the air at atmospheric pressure that you must compress to fill the cylinder. Working pressure × volume ÷ atmospheric pressure = free air consumed per stroke. Size a compressor for at least 1.5× peak demand and add 20-30% for tools that run continuously. A typical 1/4 hp pancake compressor delivers about 1-2 SCFM continuously.

Pneumatic vs Hydraulic SelectionTAB. 5B-3

Factor	Pneumatic	Hydraulic
Working pressure	6-10 bar (90-150 psi)	70-350 bar (1000-5000 psi)
Force at given cylinder size	Low (compressed air, low P)	High (incompressible fluid, high P)
Speed control	Fast, but bouncy (compressible)	Slow but precise (incompressible)
Cleanliness	Clean exhaust (air)	Risk of oil leaks; environmental concern
Temperature tolerance	Wide (cold air just feels nice)	Limited by fluid viscosity range
Cost	Low; commodity components	High; precision components
Maintenance	Filter, lubricator, dryer for moisture	Fluid changes, seal replacement, filtration
Best for	Light fast cycling, clean environments	Heavy force, slow precise positioning
Typical use	Assembly fixturing, ejection, light press	Machine tools, lifts, forming presses

Fitting Type ReferenceTAB. 5B-4

Fitting	Connection	Pressure Range	Use
Push-to-connect (push-in)	Push tubing in; collet grips	to 10 bar (pneumatic)	Festo, SMC; shop air, fast assembly
Compression	Ferrule compresses on tubing	to 350 bar	Hydraulic, gas, instrumentation
Barb + clamp	Tubing pushed over barb, clamped	to 10 bar	Low-pressure water, vacuum, low-pressure pneumatic
Quick-disconnect (industrial)	Push-and-twist coupler	to 12 bar	Shop air tools; many incompatible profiles (Industrial, Auto, ARO)
Flare (JIC, SAE)	Conical flare, metal-to-metal	to 700 bar	Hydraulic systems, brake lines
O-ring face seal (ORFS)	O-ring on flat face	to 420 bar	High-pressure hydraulics
Camlock / cam-and-groove	Cam levers, gasket seal	to 10 bar	Tankers, large hoses, agricultural

Quick-disconnect couplers have multiple incompatible profiles even at the same nominal size; the Industrial (M-style), Automotive (T-style), and ARO profiles all look similar but do not mate. Pick one standard for your whole shop and stick to it.

Section 5C Power & Motion

Bearings

A reference for bearing type selection, common bore sizes (metric and inch), load rating fundamentals (dynamic C, static C0, L10 life), and designation systems. For shaft and bore tolerance classes for press and slip fits, see 2H Bearing & Shaft Fits. For shop hardware sizing in general, see 2F Fastener Torque.

Bearing Type ComparisonFIG. 5C-1

Deep groove ball bearings are the universal default: cheap, handle radial and modest axial load, fit most general-purpose rotation. Tapered roller bearings handle high combined loads and dominate automotive wheel hubs. Needle bearings give very high radial load capacity in a thin envelope. Thrust bearings handle axial-only loads. Plain bushings (sleeve bearings) handle slow rotation and high loads with no rolling elements at all.

Common Bore Sizes (Metric)TAB. 5C-1

Designation	Bore (mm)	OD (mm)	Width (mm)	Notes
605	5	14	5	Small motors, 3D printer idlers
606	6	17	6	Small CNC, 6mm shaft
608	8	22	7	The universal hobby bearing: skateboards, 3D printers, fidget spinners
609	9	24	7	Less common; specialty
6000	10	26	8	Light-duty; small electric motors
6200	10	30	9	Medium-duty; more capacity than 6000 at same bore
6300	10	35	11	Heavy-duty; same bore, larger envelope
6001	12	28	8	Light-duty next-size-up
6002	15	32	9	15mm shaft; common stepper output
6003	17	35	10	17mm shaft
6004	20	42	12	20mm shaft; small machinery
6005	25	47	12	25mm shaft; medium machinery
6006	30	55	13	30mm shaft
6008	40	68	15	40mm shaft; mid-industrial

Designation system for deep groove ball bearings: the first digit indicates series (6 = single row), the second indicates duty (0 = light, 2 = medium, 3 = heavy), and the last two indicate bore. For 6004: bore = 04 × 5 = 20mm (the rule starts at 04 = 20mm; below that, 00 = 10mm, 01 = 12mm, 02 = 15mm, 03 = 17mm, then each step adds 5mm). Suffix codes: ZZ = double metal shield, 2RS = double rubber seal, C3 = looser internal clearance.

Common Bore Sizes (Inch)TAB. 5C-2

Designation	Bore (in)	OD (in)	Width (in)	Notes
R4	1/4 (.250)	5/8 (.625)	.196	R-series: inch dimensions; light duty
R6	3/8 (.375)	7/8 (.875)	.218	Common 3/8" shaft
R8	1/2 (.500)	1-1/8 (1.125)	.250	Very common; 1/2" shafts
R10	5/8 (.625)	1-3/8 (1.375)	.281	5/8" shaft
R12	3/4 (.750)	1-5/8 (1.625)	.312	3/4" shaft
R16	1 (1.000)	2 (2.000)	.375	1" shaft

L10 Bearing Life CalculatorTOOL 5C-1

Dynamic Load Rating C (N)

Applied Load P (N)

Speed (RPM)

Bearing Type

Load Ratio (C / P)—

L10 Life (million revs)—

L10 Life (hours)—

L10 Life (years @ 8hr/day)—

Assessment—

L10 is the life that 90% of identical bearings will exceed under given load and speed. Formula: L10 = (C/P)^p × 10⁶ revolutions, where p = 3 for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller. C is from the bearing datasheet (dynamic load rating). Doubling the load drops life by a factor of 8 for ball bearings. A C/P ratio above 6 generally gives "infinite" practical life.

Bearing Seal & Suffix CodesTAB. 5C-3

Suffix	Meaning	Use
Open	no shield or seal	Requires external sealing; oil-bath applications
Z / ZZ	single / double metal shield	Excludes dust; allows oil mist lubrication
RS / 2RS	single / double rubber contact seal	Pre-greased, sealed for life; most hobby use
RZ / 2RZ	single / double rubber non-contact seal	Better dust exclusion than Z, less friction than RS
C3	looser internal clearance	For applications with thermal expansion or interference fit
C2	tighter internal clearance	Precision applications, less radial play
P5, P4, P2	ABEC tolerance classes (precision)	Higher number = looser; ABEC 7+ for precision spindles

For most shop builds, 2RS sealed bearings are the right default: greased for life, dust-proof, and run cool at moderate speeds. ZZ shielded bearings handle higher speeds because the shields don't contact the inner race (so no friction or heat from the seal). For high-RPM applications, open or ZZ with proper external sealing and forced lubrication outperforms 2RS.

Mounting & Fit GuidanceTAB. 5C-4

Condition	Inner Race (Shaft)	Outer Race (Housing)
Inner rotating, light load	k5, k6 (light interference)	H7 (loose)
Inner rotating, normal load	m5, m6 (medium interference)	H7
Inner rotating, heavy/shock	n6, p6 (heavy interference)	K7
Outer rotating	g6, h6 (loose)	n6, p6 (interference)
Easy assembly, low load	j6 (transition)	J7 (transition)

Rule of thumb: the rotating race gets the tighter fit. For a shaft that rotates in a stationary housing (the common case), the shaft is press-fit and the housing is slip-fit. This prevents the rotating race from spinning on its mating surface, which would gall and destroy both parts. See section 2H for the actual ISO 286 tolerance values for each class.